Dedicated to the memory of Tatyana Ivanovna Alekseeva

As a model group, the adaptive capabilities of which were projected on successful hunters of traditional society, athletes of the highest category performed. Morphological features, endocrine status, and personality traits of athletes of different skill levels were studied. A complex of adaptive traits inherent in the studied group is revealed. Athletes were distinguished by masculine proportions of the face and figure, increased testosterone secretion, early onset of sexual activity, extraversion and conscientiousness. The results are discussed in the context of recent advances in ethology and evolutionary anthropology.

Keywords: adaptation, human evolution, masculinity, athletes of the highest category, waist-to-hip ratio, finger index, testosterone, aggressive behavior, dominance, risk tolerance, extraversion.

Introduction

Adaptation is an integral property of all living things, one of the most important factors in speciation. In the course of his evolution, man has mastered almost the entire ecumene precisely because of the widest range of his adaptive capabilities, including behavioral ones. As noted by V. P. Alekseev, human adaptive reactions, such as morphological, physiological, subtle biochemical, and at the population level ethological, constitute an essential component of human variability and have played and, importantly, continue to play an important role in human shaping [2007, p.239, 264]. Adaptation to diverse living conditions, along with genetic-automatic processes, is the main reason for the current polymorphism and polytypy of modern humanity.

In our country, intensive study of the ecology of human populations began in the 60s of the last century under the leadership and direct participation of T. I. Alekseeva [1977, 1986, 2003]. In the course of evolution, biological and social transformations were inextricably linked with each other. The efforts of many scientists were aimed at separating the biological and social diversity of human properties in one or another sphere. T. I. Alekseeva repeatedly emphasized that human populations are characterized by a significant variability of morphological and physiological characteristics, which was formed as a result of a long history of man, his settlement around the globe and which is based on a high plasticity of-

The study was carried out within the framework of the RFBR project No. 10 - 06 - 00010a.

the specificity of morphofunctional and behavioral traits characteristic of Homo sapiens [2003].

Russian science has a long tradition of considering morphological and cultural components in their close relationship. Thus, in his famous work on character types and their significance in human evolution, especially at the stage of Homo sapiens and its immediate ancestors, Ya. Ya. Roginsky emphasizes that at the stage of neoanthropy, social patterns acquired a dominant significance in relation to morphological evolution, while, however, "man completely preserved his connection with nature and its immediate ancestors." he himself remained a part of nature" [1977, p. 219]. It is thanks to complex social relations with their diversity, hierarchy and plasticity that it became possible to manifest new, infinitely diverse properties of the human psyche, which ultimately form character. Ya. Ya. Roginsky considers the ratio of biological and social factors in the formation of character and identifies three main categories of human mental differences: temperament (completely determined by heredity), mores (associated with social life of the individual) and "age-old types of character" that do not have time and state borders [Ibid.].

Thanks to the famous works of E. Kretschmer [1930] and W. Sheldon [Sheldon, 1940], the study of the relationship between morphological and psychological characteristics of humans has become one of the most important areas of scientific research. These researchers have shown that people with different body types tend to choose different life paths and lifestyles.

Anthropologists and psychologists have long addressed the problem of psychosomatic differences between representatives of different professional groups. It is quite obvious that a person chooses a particular type of activity based on a number of factors, including their physical capabilities, personal traits, level of fitness, educational conditions and social attitudes. At the same time, the chosen specialization (in our case, a sports career as such or a specific sport) has a clear impact on the individual, forming some of his characteristic somatic and psychological characteristics. Professional success and career prospects are determined by the correct choice of specialty in accordance with a person's predisposition. Knowing the characteristics of the individual, the coach can reasonably suggest choosing one or another specific sports activity (from the type of sport to the type of preferred strategy for conducting a match).

At the present stage of human development, so-called behavioral or social adaptation is becoming increasingly important. Many authors note the increasing segregation of society; people are united by professional, confessional, sexual and other interests; subcultures are represented among young people in various role-playing games, extreme sports, musical preferences, etc. Therefore, in anthropological studies of adaptation, along with traditional methods of ecological anthropology, ethological and evolutionary-psychological approaches are increasingly used. This perspective, which is less familiar to Russian history, is quite reasonable, since it is based on the currently well-established views on the integral social or biosocial nature of man. At the present stage of development of ethology and evolutionary psychology, complex generalizations of materials in a wide range have become possible (athletes of various sports and skill levels, children in a modern urban environment, various professional groups of citizens, representatives of traditional cultures, adolescents with deviant behavior, etc.D.) [Butovskaya and Feinberg, 1993; Butovskaya and Kozintsev, 1998; Butovskaya, 2003, 2004; Burkova et al., 2006].

Modeling of adaptive processes in hominid paleopopulations was carried out within the framework of the anthropological and endocrinological direction of E. N. Khrisanfova. In order to reconstruct adaptive processes, as well as to study the functional aspects of epochal and adaptive variability of modern humans, she used a comprehensive approach based on the interaction of three covariant systems of sexual dimorphism: somatic, hormonal, and personal (Khrisanfova, 2003). The ratio of estrogen/androgen is a vital characteristic that reflects the state of reproductive function and vital activity of the body as a whole. The increased level of testosterone in modern men is associated with such qualities as strength, the desire for leadership, etc. These qualities, and along with them somatic manifestations of Neanderthal power adaptation, accompanied by increased aggressiveness with underdeveloped inhibitory functions, could play a negative role in terms of the ultimate fate of Neanderthal populations in a collision with Sapiens, according to E. N. Khrisanfova. The "frightening" epochal trend that has been discussed recently - the weakening of sexual dimorphism, accompanied by a decrease in testosterone levels in modern men-certainly requires studying it from the point of view of the interaction of biological and social factors. A significant proportion of modern men are already born more feminized than their ancestors were 50 years ago, and it is possible that this is not the case.

sexual selection based on preference for the appearance of more "soft" partners is to blame [Butovskaya, 2004; Safonov. Butovskaya, 2008].

At the same time, the existing genetic mechanisms undoubtedly preserve the polymorphism won by all previous evolution, which, due to the combination of numerous adaptive forms, ensures the viability and viability of the species as a whole, its evolutionary potential [Khrisanfova, 2003, p.82]. Therefore, the increase in the frequency of asthenoid type of constitution in adolescents probably reflects the evolutionary restructuring of ontogenesis, adapted to the conditions of modern life.

A fundamentally new aspect in the study of the role of social factors in the evolution of human physical appearance is the idea of the universality of the types of social structures and their determining factors (ecological, phylogenetic, ethological), at least during the existence of the genus Homo, i.e. more than 2 million years. We have previously shown that such basic characteristics of social systems as despotism and egalitarianism are provided by a similar set of behavioral adaptations in lower and higher apes; similar principles can also be identified when analyzing social systems in humans [Butovskaya et al., 2000]. There is often a close relationship between a number of behavioral (psychological) and morphological characteristics (the degree of sexual dimorphism, features of the face and body structure, asymmetry, etc.), which is explained by the general effect of both environmental (including social) and hereditary factors.

Human populations vary greatly in the set and degree of expression of personal characteristics (Stefanenko, 2004). The question of their universality and specificity in different cultures is actively discussed today in anthropological and psychological studies [John, 1990]. Currently, the five-factor model of personality is most widely used; it is used to compare various human communities (ethnic, age, and social) [Costa and McCrae, 1992]. It is generally accepted that personality is formed in the process of socialization, but many dynamic characteristics of human behavior are determined by heredity factors, which are found already in the first year of life [Ravich-Shcherbo et al., 2000]; they are based on genetic polymorphism and the related neurobiological component of behavior. This also applies to such traits as risk-taking, aggressiveness, neuroticism, and extraversion [Chen et al., 1999; Nettle, 2005; Zuckerman et al., 1993]. In turn, personality traits largely determine the life trajectories of an individual: his health, sexual behavior, social connections and behavior in marriage [Eysenck H. J., Eysenck S. B. G., 1969].

An example of a successful study of the relationship between morphological and behavioral characteristics can be considered works on the correlation of the finger index (2D : 4D-the ratio of the length of the second and fourth fingers of the hand) with various anthropological and ethological characteristics of an individual. The relationship between the 2D : 4D value and male homosexuality has been shown [Manning and Robinson, 2003], success in sports [Manning and Taylor, 2001], personality characteristics [Fink et al., 2004; Austin et al., 2002], and testosterone levels [Manning et al., 1998]. The literature also discusses the correlation of the finger index with autism, a tendency to depression [Palmer J., Palmer L., 2003], aggressiveness [Bailey, Hurd, 2005], and reproductive success [Walton et al., 2000]. Testosterone plays a key role in the formation and development of human masculine traits, especially such as good spatial orientation, aggressiveness, risk-taking, dominance and/or leadership, and activity [Book et al., 2001; Archer et al., 2005; Johnson et al., 2007]. To a certain extent, the finger index can serve as an indicator of the severity of these features in a man. J. Manning and R. Using the example of football athletes, Taylor showed that the lower the 2D : 4D value in men, the higher athletic abilities (members of the highest football league, compared to the lowest, have a lower value, i.e. a higher level of prenatal testosterone) [Manning and Taylor, 2001]. In this regard, it is assumed that the finger index can be one of the significant markers of athletes ' predisposition to high sports achievements.

A number of experts believe that any personality trait that is influenced by testosterone and reflects sexual dimorphism can correlate with the ratio of finger length [Austin et al., 2002]. In particular, such a relationship, revealed by the questionnaire of M. Zuckerman [Zuckerman, 1994], is found with a tendency to risk (search for novelty of sensations).

In this study, we consider a sample of athletes of the highest category engaged in strength and competitive sports as a model that, with a certain degree of assumption, can be compared with the group of the most successful men in terms of reproduction in Paleolithic hunter-gatherer communities (hunters and warriors). In today's industrial society, other types of men (less masculine, focused on intellectual work and caring for children) are often in demand, but two alternative models of sexual behavior are considered.-

but they co-exist and are basic evolutionarily stable strategies that can be traced at all stages of human evolution. Although the ratio of these types in the population varies from epoch to epoch and from culture to culture, none of them completely displaces the alternative one.

Material and methods

The study was based on the results of a comprehensive survey of three groups of men aged 17 to 30 years conducted in 2006-2008: 1) students of Moscow universities (control group); 2) athletes of the highest category (the Russian youth national football team and the Russian national judo team); 3) junior students of the Russian State University of Physical Culture (RSUFC). The first sample consisted of 68 people, the second - 67, the third -160 people.

The research program included a complex of anthropometric characteristics of the face and body, an analysis of testosterone levels in saliva samples, and a battery of psychological tests. Measurements of the face and body were carried out according to the method adopted at the Research Institute of Anthropology of Moscow State University (Bunak, 1941). The anthropometric program included the physiognomic and morphological (from the lower point of the eyebrows) height of the face, the height of the lower jaw, the zygomatic and mandibular diameters, the width of the chin, the interpupillary distance, the development of the brow relief*, as well as the girth of the shoulders, waist and hips. Body length was measured using an anthropometer, and weight was measured using floor scales and body mass index was determined. In addition, the length of the second and fourth fingers on both hands was measured according to the method of J. R. R. Tolkien. From the inner edge of the basal ridge at the base to the tip of the finger) [Manning, 2002] and calculated the finger index (the ratio of the length of the second finger to the length of the fourth).

Saliva for the analysis of testosterone levels was collected from athletes and students of RSUPHK at the same time - between 10.00 and 12.00, and from the control group-shortly after waking up. All saliva samples were stored frozen at -20°C. Testosterone levels were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (IFM) using standard Elisa diagnostic kits manufactured by DRG International Inc. (USA). All analyses were performed in accordance with the protocol of these kits.

The benchmarks were within the accepted limits. Interprob and intraprob coefficients of variation were less than 10 %. The results are presented in picamoles per liter (pmol / l). It should be noted that according to other authors, the kits produced by DRG produce slightly lower testosterone concentrations (Goncharov et al., 2008).

All subjects completed a questionnaire with individual sociodemographic data; a number of psychological tests: for the expression of personality traits (NEO, abbreviated form) [Costa, McCrae, 1989], self-assessment of aggressiveness [Buss, Perry, 1992], identification of dominance, risk-taking [Zuckerman, 1994]; as well as the questionnaire of sexual roles by S. Bem [Bern, 1974].

The NEO test (Costa and McCrae, 1992) evaluates personality by such factors as neuroticism, extraversion, openness to new experiences, cooperation, and conscientiousness. Respondents ' predisposition to aggression was differentiated on a four-step scale: verbal, physical aggression, anger, hostility. Risk aversion was assessed on four scales [Zuckerman, 1994]: TAS (search for dangers and adventures) describes the tendency of the individual to search for new experiences associated with thrills and associated with vital risk (the entire space of extreme sports); ES (search for experience/experiences) reflects the individual's desire for new experiences through non-generally accepted patterns behavior (the desire to impress, do something out of the ordinary, communicate with "informal" and" unusual " people), as well as through travel; Dis (liberated behavior) is associated with the activity of a person to achieve a state of complete freedom and permissiveness, often due to alcohol, parties, gambling, uninhibited sexual behavior BS (sensitivity to boredom) evaluates the degree of antipathy to routine repetitive actions (avoiding everything familiar, boring, monotonous).

S. Bem's Gender Roles questionnaire is a test based on the principle of self-assessment and consists of verbal scales that allow us to get estimates of an individual's masculinity and femininity (Bern, 1974). When testing, the respondent is asked to evaluate the degree of expression of the proposed characteristics on a seven-point scale. As a result, the level of masculinity, femininity or androgyny of the individual is revealed within the framework of the concept of a multidimensional continuum of psychological sexual properties. Since femininity and masculinity in the orthogonal model are understood as independent constructs, a person can either focus on a masculine or feminine role in the society.

* The height of the lower jaw (the distance between the stomion and gnathion points) and the width of the chin are considered as signs marking the external masculinity (masculinity) of the appearance [Little et al., 2008].

or show a high degree of both feminine and masculine qualities (androgyny).

All characteristics included in the set of scales have a positive or neutral emotional coloring. The masculine sexual role is combined with pronounced individualistic orientations. Its content includes signs of active, dominant, and instrumental behavior. The characteristics included in the masculinity scale are necessary for achieving success in a macrosocial environment. The main distinguishing feature of the feminine gender role reflected in the methodology is the dependence on the patronizing attitude of others. The content of the feminine scale consists of signs necessary for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and corresponding to a passive, dependent role position. Femininity reflects the opposite of masculine strategy for achieving success in a micro-social environment.

The Russian-language adapted version of the test appeared thanks to the Kazan psychologist O. G. Lopukhova [2000] and passed expert verification. When processing test results, we get an estimate of femininity (F) and masculinity (M), and also calculate the index using the formula IS = (F - M): 2,322. Values from -1 to +1 indicate androgyny. If the index is less than -1, it indicates masculinity, and if it is more than +1, it indicates femininity. Values less than -2.025 indicate pronounced masculinity, and values greater than +2.025 indicate pronounced femininity.

Statistical processing of the results was performed on a personal computer using the statistical programs Statistica 6.0 and SPSS 10.0.7. Previously, in order to identify complexes of features of consistent variation, the main components were analyzed in the combined sample. For each group, the main statistical parameters were calculated - arithmetic mean values and mean square deviations. To assess the significance of intergroup differences in anthropometric and psychological parameters, the Mann-Whitney test was used. If the significance level was p > 0.05, the differences were considered unreliable, and if p < 0.05, they were considered significant.

Identification of complexes of consistent variation in the combined sample

For this task, we chose the principal component method, which allows us to move from a large set of features (in our case, more than 20) to a small number of factors that combine complexes of related primary parameters. This procedure significantly simplifies the interpretation of the results and provides additional information about the intragroup distribution and relationships of the studied traits.

It was most interesting to identify links between morphological indicators and behavioral features at the group level. It is quite clear that the degree of reliability of such connections will be significantly lower than within the actual morphological or psychological complex, and their interpretation should be approached with some caution. For this reason, we did not use data on hormones, since the samples for this indicator were significantly smaller than for other indicators. The analysis of the main components allowed us to clearly identify the combinations of interest to us. The first five components were analyzed, which accounted for about 42 % of the diversity across the entire set of traits under consideration, and subsequent factors were not taken into account, since they contained negligible information.

As can be seen from Table 1, the first principal component describes the maximum proportion of diversity and, by the property of the method, has the largest number of significant loads. This factor combined such morphological features as large face size (both altitudinal and latitudinal) and large body mass index values, on the one hand, and a psychological tendency to aggressive behavior (with an emphasis on anger and hostility), on the other. Significant negative loads on the first component were obtained for such personal qualities as a tendency to cooperate and conscientiousness. In other words, people of an aggressive disposition with a reduced ability to cooperate and conscientiousness are relatively larger-faced and more muscular.

The second main component revealed a complex associated with an increased propensity for risk (in relation to the search for dangers and adventures, relaxed behavior and susceptibility to boredom) and a predisposition to verbal and physical aggression (high values of loads with a negative sign) in combination with small values of face height, zygomatic diameter and interpupillary distance with high values of the C index. Bem, meaning the predominance of feminine personality traits.

The third main component showed a contrast within the psychological profile of the individual, contrasting pronounced extroverts who tend to dominate and search for dangers with introverts with high scores on the neuroticism scale.

Table 1. Results of principal component analysis

* 1 - 12 - 13 years; 2 - 14 - 15; 3 - 16 - 17; 4 - 18 - 20; 5 - older than 20 years.

The fourth main component identified a complex of traits directly or indirectly related to the level of male hormones. Individuals with a high testosterone content have low values of the finger index, a large shoulder width relative to the hips, a high and narrow lower jaw with a sufficiently wide chin and a significant development of the brow relief, and in behavior - a reduced desire to search for dangerous experiences and experiences, early onset of sexual activity. Individuals with high values of the finger index have relatively narrow shoulders, a low and wide lower jaw (in this case, an increase in the width of the jaw may be associated with a slightly increased degree of fat deposition), are characterized by a desire for dangerous experiences and a late onset of sexual activity.

The fifth main component also provided valuable information about the relationships of the studied features. She combined parameters describing the features of the figure (the ratio of shoulder and waist circumference to hip circumference), the height of the face and the finger index on both hands. Please note that the wide pla-

Figure 1. Normalized average values of the finger index on the right hand (R2D : 4D).

1-professional athletes; 2-RSUFC students; 3-control group.

Figure 2. Normalized average values of the interpupillary distance.

1-3 - see Figure 1.

chi and narrow hips here stand out in combination with a low 2D : 4D value and a small height of the face and lower jaw. A sufficiently large load with a positive sign for neuroticism (0.3) means high indicators for this quality in men with feminine proportions (narrow shoulders, wide hips, elongated face).

Thus, the combined sample demonstrated a combination of morphological and psychological characteristics found in men as a whole. It was possible to identify a certain complex of masculinity, predictors of which were a low finger index, large face size, relative broad shoulders and narrow hips, a high indicator of active body weight, psychological features associated with slightly increased aggressiveness, a tendency to leadership, and such personal characteristics as a reduced ability to conscientiousness and cooperation. At the next stage, we analyzed the specifics of the distribution of the studied characteristics in two samples of athletes with different levels of achievement, and in the control group.

Masculinity and athletic achievements

Comparison of the three samples revealed a number of significant differences in both measurement parameters and behavior characteristics (Table 2). Significantly, the minimum 2D : 4D values on the right hand were obtained for athletes of the highest category, and the maximum values were obtained for the control group (Figure 1). For the finger index on the left hand, the picture was more pronounced It was blurry, but the trend of its growth in the range from professionals to the control sample remained.

According to the facial features associated with the masculinity complex, professional athletes also significantly differed from the other two groups, in particular, a greater height of the lower jaw, a greater width of the chin, a more pronounced brow relief, and a larger interpupillary distance (Table 2, Fig. 2).

Athletes, both professionals and students, were more broad-shouldered in comparison with the control sample. In addition, professionals had a relatively narrower hip circumference relative to the waist than students (Table 2). They also showed higher body mass index values, which seems to indicate greater development of the muscular component of body composition.

The level of free testosterone in the saliva of professional athletes was approximately 2 times higher than the average values for the other two samples (Table 2). The higher values in the control group of young men, compared with students of RSUFC, are explained by the different time of sample collection: in the former - shortly after waking up, in the latter - from 10.00 to 12.00, just like professional athletes. Since testosterone levels show daily dynamics with a peak at the time of awakening, we, unfortunately, cannot objectively compare the indicators of these two samples. It is noteworthy that despite different saliva collection times, professional athletes still had significantly higher testosterone levels.

Comparison of samples according to the S. Bem index, which reflects the degree of expression of masculine / feminine personality traits, showed that professional athletes are noticeably more masculine, while students of the two groups practically do not differ from each other (Table 2, Figure 3). Comparison of samples by the timing of the onset of sexual activity revealed significantly earlier ones in athletes- professo-

Table 2. Main statistical characteristics of the studied traits and significance of the obtained differences

Note. Only those features that show significant differences in at least one pair of comparisons are presented.

Figure 3. Normalized average values of the Bem S. index (IS).

1-3 - see Figure 1.

Figure 4. Normalized average extraversion rates.

1-3 - see Figure 1.

Figure 5. Normalized average values of the generalized risk propensity score according to M. Zuckerman.

1-3 - see Figure 1.

Figure 6. Normalized average indicators of verbal aggression.

1-3 - see Figure 1.

catch money. Interestingly, student-athletes also started sexual activity significantly earlier than young men in the control group (Table 2).

Personal characteristics and sporting achievements

In order to identify the personal characteristics of athletes of different skill levels and the control sample, a five-factor NEO personality model was used: out of five scales, significant differences were obtained in three (extraversion, conscientiousness and openness to new experience). All athletes showed higher rates of extraversion and openness to new experiences compared to the control group (Table 2, Figure 4). Total integrity scores were significantly higher among professional athletes.

According to the M. Zuckerman questionnaire (risk tolerance), students of both groups are most likely to seek adventure (Table 2). The control sample significantly outperformed athletes in terms of their tendency to uninhibited behavior (defiance of social norms). The total risk propensity score showed a clear upward gradient from professional athletes to the control group (Figure 5).

According to the Bass-Pari questionnaire (propensity to aggression), only one indicator showed dependence on sports qualification: professional athletes were more prone to verbal aggression than students of both groups (Table 2, Figure 6).

Thus, athletes of the highest category turned out to be the most masculine in all characteristics: morphological (morphology of the face and body),

hormonal and personal factors. Differences from the masculinity complex identified by the results of the analysis of the main components concerned greater conscientiousness of athletes. Apparently, this quality is very important for achieving high results in sports.

Discussion of the results

Our study revealed a number of morphopsychological complexes that reflect several adaptive types of men in the modern urban environment. It was possible to identify a fixed complex of masculinity, predictors of which are such signs as a low finger index, large face size, relative broad shoulders and narrow hips, a high indicator of active body weight, psychological features associated with slightly increased aggressiveness, a tendency to leadership, and personal characteristics that suggest a reduced ability to conscientiousness and cooperation. At the same time, professional athletes are characterized by higher extroversion and a tendency to dominate, as opposed to introverts who show high scores on the neuroticism scale. Athletes, both professionals and students, started their sexual life significantly earlier in comparison with the young men of the control group.

In our study, the minimum values of 2D : 4D on the right hand were obtained for professional athletes, and the maximum values were obtained for the control sample, which is consistent with the data of J. R. R. Tolkien. Manning et al., 2007) reported that there was a significant association between high athletic performance of stayers and a high level of prenatal testosterone, which was measured by the finger index. The athletes of the highest category studied by us turned out to be the most masculine in the entire complex of indicators, including morphological (morphology of the face and body), hormonal and personal characteristics.

There are two possible reasons for the negative correlation between the finger index and the level of achievement in sports (Manning and Taylor, 2001). A high level of prenatal testosterone, firstly, contributes to the development of the right hemisphere of the brain and, as a result, spatial orientation abilities; secondly, it ensures the body's resistance to damage to the cardiovascular system and other complications. Thus, it creates all the necessary conditions for the development and manifestation of athletic abilities.

Many sports involve a certain amount of risk and require well-developed physical and spatial-orientation abilities, as well as quick reactions. These qualities have a pronounced masculine nature and should correlate with high levels of prenatal testosterone. Based on this statement, a hypothesis emerged that highly qualified athletes will have a lower 2D : 4D value compared to the control group. They are characterized by considerable competitiveness and activity, which, in the opinion of J. R. R. Tolkien, is very important. Menning and R. Taylor, correlates with the finger index [Ibid.]. In addition, the authors note that the ability to many sports disciplines can be an indicator of success in men's skirmishes, because it requires good spatial orientation skills, speed, strength, endurance. It is these qualities that the athletes we have studied demonstrate, which should affect their success with the opposite sex. At the same time, this conclusion should be taken with a certain degree of caution, since the number of sexual partners is influenced by a huge number of other factors that are not always amenable to analysis [Walton et al., 2000].

We assumed that achievements in strength and competitive sports may reflect a man's overall level of fitness to compete for limited resources, as well as his ability to successfully obtain food. Thus, the results obtained in relation to various adaptive capabilities of males can be projected with some degree of conditionality to the early stages of the evolution of the genus Homo as models of various life strategies of males in a hunter-gatherer society. We are not alone in this assumption; a few years earlier, J. R. R. Tolkien wrote: Menning and R. Taylor hypothesized that in team sports (such as football), men who possess a set of qualities that are adaptive for primitive hunters (strength, courage, good spatial orientation, ability to cooperate, etc.) are most successfully realized (Manning and Taylor, 2001). The materials obtained by these authors brilliantly confirmed their assumption. According to J. R. R. Tolkien, According to Menning and R. Taylor, in the early stages of the evolution of the genus Homo, selection for high levels of prenatal testosterone and the ability to run long distances, where intensive aerobic metabolism is the determining factor, was active. Among primates, only humans are able to run for many kilometers. The ratio of speed and range is quite comparable to that of stayers of the animal world-dogs and horses. The ability of a person to run for a long time, developed due to the improvement of anatomical features of the limbs and skeleton, thermoregulation mechanisms,

the structure and functions of the respiratory organs, was an important adaptation, which gave significant advantages in hunting with pursuit. In the early stages of evolution, about 2 million years AGO, this ability certainly meant greater success in hunting (Manning et al., 2007). It seems that the results of our study not only confirm the hypothesis of J. R. R. Tolkien. However, they also add new details to the characteristics of this adaptive type. Such men (in our case, athletes of the highest category) are more masculine (both in the social and biological sense of the term), as well as more extroverted, open to new experiences, conscientious, somewhat more aggressive, but less likely to take risks in everyday life, and enter into sexual relations earlier [Manning, Taylor, 2001]. In line with the evolutionary theory, a man's success is determined by his included fitness, in particular, reproductive success [Mealey, 2000]. According to anthropologists, among hunter-gatherers and early farmers, more successful hunters and warriors actually had more wives and children (Marlow, 2007). In modern society, such men (in any case, for the athletes of the highest category, judoists and football players studied by us) seem to have a similar tendency. The results of our study indicate that they start sexual activity earlier, and according to the materials of foreign colleagues, they have on average a larger number of partners [Manning and Taylor, 2001]. Projecting this data block onto a primitive society where contraception was not available, it is highly likely that such men had more offspring.

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