ODONTOLOGICAL MATERIALS FROM THE MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC LAYERS OF ALTAI CAVES*

The paper presents a summary of odontological materials from the Middle Paleolithic layers in the Okladnikov and Chagyrskaya caves (Altai). Separate teeth of individuals of different ages were studied. New finds from the Chagyr cave, in particular, a fragment of the lower jaw with preserved teeth, reveal a Neanderthal complex of odontological features: anterior fossa, epicristid on the lower molars, metaconid and crest on the premolars. According to odontology data, the intermediate position of the Altai Neanderthals between other Eurasian Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans, which was previously identified by morphological features of the skeleton, is noted.

Key words: Neanderthals, Gorny Altai, odontology, anthropology.

Introduction

Middle Paleolithic materials reflecting the Neanderthal culture were discovered by Siberian archaeologists in the Okladnikov and Chagyrskaya caves in the low mountains of Northwestern Altai. Okladnikov Cave (formerly known informally as Sibiryachikha, after a nearby settlement) was discovered as an archaeological site in 1984 by A. P. Derevyanko and V. I. Molodin. In the same year, V. T. Petrin's excavations in the cave revealed scattered postcranial remains and several teeth belonging to individuals of different ages (layers 2, 3, and 7).

Since 1984, the cave has been an object of archaeological research using various modern methods. The archaeological industry found in the cave differed from materials from other sites in the Altai and Siberia by the presence of a musteroid complex of tools designed for butchering and processing animal carcasses of certain megafauna species. Thus, the cultural layers of the cave corresponded to sites of the type of hunting camps of the Moutier (Neanderthal) man (Derevyanko and Markin, 1992). According to the results of uranium and radiocarbon dating, all kulyu-bearing horizons belong to 45 ^ 10 Ka BP (Derevyanko, 2011).

Preliminary studies of the anthropological material from the Okladnikov Cave excavations were conducted by V. P. Alekseev, the results were presented in the form of a scientific report published much later, after the scientist's death. Already at the preliminary stage of the study, V. P. Alekseev, during a broad comparative morphological analysis of the remains, noted the absence of morphological race-differentiating features and the presence of pronounced archaic odontological features [Alekseev, 1998].

American anthropologist K. Turner also studied odontological materials from Okladnikov Cave. They made an interesting conclusion that the cave dwellers belong to Neanderthals, which have obvious morphological similarities with European, rather than Asian, synchronous groups (Turner, 1990).

*The work was carried out within the framework of the RFBR project N 11 - 06 - 12009.

A second detailed study of odontological materials from Okladnikov Cave was conducted by E. G. Shpakova. It showed that these finds significantly differ from the synchronous and more archaic odontological remains from Denisova Cave and are close to European Upper Paleolithic materials (Shpakova, 2000, 2001; Shpakova and Derevyanko, 2000). The complex of morphological features that she was able to identify is characterized by the absence of such Neanderthal-specific features as an episcristid (anterior transversal crest of the lower molars) and a relatively wider talonid of distal molars (Shpakova, 2001, p.71). In addition, the size of the crowns of the preserved teeth is quite comparable to the size of the crowns of the teeth of representatives of the Upper Paleolithic era. Based on these observations, E. G. Shpakova noted that the inhabitants of Okladnikov Cave can most likely be attributed to representatives of early Sapiens (Shpakova and Derevyanko, 2000; Shpakova, 2001).

A few years later, the anthropological materials from Okladnikov Cave were re-evaluated by B. T. Viola (2009). He, like previous researchers, drew attention to the complexity of interpreting the data obtained. On the one hand, the obvious archaic and Neanderthal appearance is emphasized by a strong folding of the masticatory surface and a complicated pattern of furrows, numerous tubercles on the lower molars, a pronounced anterior fossa and the presence of a sixth tubercle. On the other hand, the first molar from the Okladnikov Cave does not have the characteristic Neanderthal trait (96 %, according to Bailey, 2002) - the epicristid (midtrigonid crest) [Zubov, 1992]. The third molars of another individual from the same cave show incomplete ridge formation, which indirectly indicates the presence of an epicristid. Based on the results of microtomography and virtual three-dimensional reconstruction of all the lower molars from Okladnikov Cave, the researcher was able to detect the presence of epicristide on the dentin surface at the junction of enamel and dentin. B. T. Viola, referring to the summary of Sh. Bailey (2002) emphasizes that this feature brings these finds closer to Neanderthal ones (Viola, 2009, p.133).

The opinion of archaeologists about the existence of a Neanderthal-type person in the Altai, as well as the cautious assumptions of anthropologists about the presence of a Neanderthal physical complex in Siberia, was convincingly confirmed by studies of ancient DNA from human remains preserved under the canopy of Okladnikov Cave. In 2007, molecular geneticists identified so-called Neanderthal genes in cave dwellers [Krauseetal., 2007].

In the same year, St. Markin discovered the Middle Paleolithic layers in the Chagyr Cave. Already in 2008 - 2009, the similarity of the stone tools found in them with the industry from the Okladnikov Cave was traced (Derevianko and Markin, 2011). Siberian archaeologists were able to prove that the Chagyr Cave and Okladnikov Cave contain musteroid layers (Derevianko, Markin, and Zykin, 2009; Derevianko and Markin, 2012; Markin, Zykin, and Zykina, 2011; Derevianko and Markin, 2011). This, as well as the identification of the Neanderthal sequence in the genotype of the ancient inhabitants of Okladnikov Cave, clearly confirmed the assumption that Neanderthals settled in the Altai territory.

Among the first odontological materials discovered in the Chagyr cave, a new find of the lower milk canine was studied and put into circulation during a comparative study [Buzhilova, 2011]. The canine is characterized by relative grace, but in general it is most similar in size and proportions to Neanderthal forms. Taking into account the results of the comparison and archaeological data, the appearance of the Neanderthal anthropological complex in the Altai territory can be explained, in our opinion, only by the migration of physical carriers of the Moutier culture to this territory.

B. T. Viola, referring to the study of two teeth of the permanent formation from the Chagyr cave, despite their incomplete preservation and obvious wear of the crowns, confirmed that the cave inhabitants belong to the Neanderthal physical type (Viola et al., 2011). A team of authors published the results of a preliminary analysis of a fragment of the lower jaw with preserved in situ teeth: a canine, two pre-root and two molars. The low degree of wear on the crowns allowed us to trace the presence of anterior fossa and epicristid on the molars, as well as the development of metaconid and crest on the pre-root teeth, which are characteristic of the Neanderthal odontological complex (Viola et al., 2012).

Materials and methods

Recently, thanks to regular archaeological surveys, the number of odontological finds from the layers of the Chagyr Cave has significantly increased. The odontological materials discovered by St. John the Baptist were studied. In the course of archaeological work in the cave in 2008 - 2012, and a comparative study was conducted taking into account data on other synchronous odontological finds in Eurasia.

The preservation of many permanent and baby teeth from the layers of the Sibiryachikha culture in Altai caves made it possible to carry out standard odontological measurements accepted in Russian science [Zubov, 1968]. For a general comparative analysis, teeth from other Altai caves - Denisova and Strashnaya-were measured. To determine the taxonomic position of the studied teeth from the layers of the Sibiryachikha culture, odontometric data describing a broad "Eurasian background" were used from literature sources for the Stone Age epochs, as well as as coordinating the scale of geographical variation of Homo in modern groups (samples for different continents). Some odontoscopic features of individual teeth were also evaluated according to the standards of the Arizona School [Turner, Nichol, Scott, 1991] for Homo sapiens and according to the features proposed by Sh. Bailey (2002, 2005) for Eurasian Neanderthals, which we have identified as taxonomically valuable. A summary of Russian odontologists was also used for the analysis, reflecting the scale of variability of some phenotypic traits (Zubov and Khaldeyeva, 1993). To estimate the distribution of metric indicators, we used the standard package of univariate statistics algorithms in Statistica 8.0.

Results and discussion

Estimation of the minimum number of individuals

The anthropological collection from the Chagyr Cave is represented by bone remains of several individuals of different ages. There are more than 50 fragments in the collection (Table 1). Of these, four to five fragments require special identification to clarify their belonging to the zoofauna. Among the others: approx. 25 fragments of the skeleton of a sexually mature individual/individuals, 2 fragments of the skeleton of an immature individual/individuals, 2 milk teeth, 10 separate teeth of permanent generation, a fragment of the upper jaw of the left side with two molars preserved, and a fragment of the right part of the lower jaw with in situ teeth preserved (canine, two pre-root and two molars).

When identifying the minimum number of individuals, we took into account differences in the massiveness of teeth of constant generation. The teeth of the upper jaw are relatively more graceful than those of the lower jaw. This difference is especially clear when comparing the size of the premolars of the lower jaw and the isolated upper premolar. Another criterion was the degree of wear on the chewing surface of all permanent teeth. Isolated teeth show at least two stages of wear, i.e. they could have belonged to two different individuals, and differ in this feature from the teeth of the lower jaw. Some of the disjointed teeth of the upper jaw are articulated along interdental facets (for example, the external upper incisor and the canine of the left side). Thus, the analysis of teeth of constant generation allows us to identify at least three individuals, probably of different sexes and ages.

Preliminary analysis of bone remains revealed a predominance of fragments of the left side of the postcranial skeleton, which were discovered during excavations in 2011. Bone remains of the right side of the skeleton were found during excavations in 2012. It is possible that both of them belonged to the same adult individual.

The collection contains scattered remains of immature individuals. Analysis of the erasure and resorption level of the milk canine root showed that it may have been lost naturally during the change of tooth generation at the age of 9-12 years. During excavations in 2012, another milk canine was found on the other side of the jaw; its size, as well as morphological features, make it possible to say that the teeth of this class belonged to one individual. A previously discovered hand phalanx of an immature individual indicates the age of the individual not older than 13 years. In 2012, a thoracic vertebra was found that could have belonged to a sexually mature but very young individual (Table 1). Thus, based on the results of the analysis of fragments of an immature individual(s), excluding the last find, it can be assumed that they belong to the same skeleton of a 9-12 - year-old child, although taking into account the topography of the finds, this is not the case. there can also be two different individuals. A fragment of the vertebra of an immature individual, possibly a child of the first half of the first decade of life (no older than five years), also attracts attention. Thus, there is reason to say that fragments of at least two or three immature and at least three or four sexually mature young individuals were found in the layers of the Chagyr cave.

The anthropological collection of the Okladnikov Cave site consists of 17 fragmentary remains of several individuals (Table 2). Many researchers conducted an analysis to calculate the minimum number of individuals at this site (Shpakova and Derevyanko 2000; Mednikova, 2011; Viola, 2009; Dobrovolskaya and Tiunov, 2011). Taking into account the data obtained by them and the results of our analysis of the location of bone fragments in the layers and their age, we can conclude that the remains of at least two children, one of whom was found in the cave.

Table 1. Anthropological finds from the Chagyr cave (excavations of St. Markin, 2008-2012)

End of Table 1

Table 2. Anthropological finds from Okladnikov Cave (excavations by V. T. Petrin, 1984)

*The results of research using these methods were published in [Shpakova and Derevyanko 2000; Mednikova, 2011; Viola, 2009; Viola et al., 2011; Buzhiova, 2011; Dobrovolskaya and Tiunov, 2011].

a teenager and one adult. The last two may be of different sexes.

Thus, skeletal fragments and disjointed teeth of at least three or four immature and four or five sexually mature individuals are represented in the Okladnikov and Chagyrskaya caves.

Odontological analysis of new materials

Teeth of breast generation. The milk canines discovered in 2008 and 2012 during excavations in the Chagyr cave are in a satisfactory condition and are suitable for examination (Table 3). As indicated, they probably belonged to one individual.

To assess the taxonomic position of this individual, a comparative analysis of metric features was undertaken, taking into account the scale of variability in these parameters of fossils and modern Homo forms (a total of 85 observations). The range of variability of the vestibulolingual diameter varies from 4.6 to 7.7 mm (with an average of 5.89 mm and a standard deviation of 0.60). The studied teeth show the greatest similarity in size to the teeth of European Neanderthals and are as close as possible to some Middle Eastern finds (Neanderthal Kebara 4 and Homo Dederyeh 1 are the closest).

Mesiodistal diameter variations are in the range of 4.6-7.9 mm (mean 6.47 mm, standard deviation 0.57). According to this indicator, the individual under study shows the maximum similarity with the pos-

Table 3. Diameter of Paleolithic teeth from Altai caves

with the Neanderthals of Spi VI, Arcis-sur-Cure 3826 and with the Middle Eastern find of Homo Kafzeh 15. It should be noted that the Upper Paleolithic find from the Larch site in the Krasnoyarsk Territory is located in the same cluster.

According to the tooth crown index, the individual from the Chagyr Cave, as in previous analyses, is closest to European Neanderthals. Interestingly, the described milk canines show a similar position according to the crown index; they are located in the same area as the crown index.-

They are located next to a similar tooth from the Strashnaya Cave, the archaeological context of which is not yet fully detailed (Derevyanko, 2011). We hope that when new materials from these caves become available, it will be possible to continue comparative research and evaluate the morphological features of individuals from the Strashnaya Cave.

The milky second right molar from Okladnikov Cave, as mentioned above, was studied in detail by several researchers (Shpakova and Derevyanko, 2000). When assessing the taxonomic position of this class of teeth, we performed a comparative analysis using data on 102 individuals from the Stone Age epochs. In the series of variability of the vestibulolingual diameter (from 8.0 to 10.2 mm), the average is 9.2 mm, the standard deviation is 0.58. There is no clear geographical or chronological variation in the size of this indicator. Interestingly, individuals from the Altai caves of Okladnikov, Denisova, and Strashnaya share similar tendencies, despite differences in absolute values. Both individuals from the Okladnikov and Strashnaya caves, as well as the Late Assyrian "Denisovian", occupy an intermediate position between European Neanderthals and Middle Eastern Homo (the individual from the Okladnikov cave is close to the Neanderthal Shate-nef 2 and the Middle Eastern Homo Skhul 10, the child from Strashnaya is close to the Neanderthal Le Roy R50/3 3 and the children from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, the child from Kafzeh, from Denisova to the European Neanderthals Roque de Marzal, La Chaz 13 and the Middle Eastern Homo Kafzeh 4). Comparative analysis reveals the odontological massiveness of the child from the Strashnaya Cave (close in size to the child from Staroselya).

The range of variation of the mesiodistal diameter is 9.2-11.6 mm with an average of 10.4 mm and a standard deviation of 0.60. Like the previous indicator, it does not differentiate much between Eurasian hominins. There is a certain tendency to isolate larger forms of European Neanderthals and relatively gracile representatives of the Upper Paleolithic. Individuals from the Okladnikov and Strashnaya caves are at the same positions in this indicator that they occupy in terms of vestibulolinguistic diameter. The Okladnikov Cave child is close to some European Neanderthals, as well as to the Middle Eastern Kafzeh 4 and Shanidar 7 and large Upper Paleolithic forms (for example, Pavlov 8 and Malta 2). The massive individual from Strashnaya bears a resemblance to the European Neanderthal Le Roy R50 / 33. The Denisova child differs in trends from other Altai finds in terms of meso-distal diameter variability and is close to the Middle Eastern finds of Dederyekh 2 and Amud 3.

According to the crown index, the Okladnikov cave find is closest to the European Neanderthal from Combe-Grenal, while the child from Strashnaya is more similar to another Neanderthal from France-Le Roy R50 / 33. According to the massiveness index, the Okladnikov Cave child shows an obvious similarity to the large Upper Paleolithic forms of Pavlov 7 and 8.

Teeth of constant generation. Incisors (three lower jaw teeth and two upper teeth) and canines (one of each lower and upper jaw) were found in the Middle Paleolithic layers of the Chagyr Cave in recent archaeological seasons (pl. 3), which allow us to trace the structural features of the front teeth of Altai hominins. Unfortunately, the preservation of teeth is unsatisfactory. In general, you can pay attention to short and massive roots. The length of the preserved roots (14.1; 14.1; 16.2 mm of the lower teeth and 15.6 mm of the upper teeth) allows us to determine the intermediate position of these individuals between Neanderthals and Sapiens of the Upper Paleolithic by the range of trait variability, according to the summary of Sh. Bailey (2005, p. 205).

The crowns of the teeth are practically not preserved. One of the incisors shows a lingual tubercle,a feature often found in Neanderthals (Bailey, 2002). According to metric parameters (comparative analysis of the vestibular-lingual diameter of 95 teeth, average 6.7 mm, standard deviation 0.50), the incisors of Chagyrts are not as massive as Neanderthal incisors, but on average they are closest to Middle Eastern Homo (Table 3).

The canines found in the Chagyr cave are massive. They are similar in proportions. Due to the poor preservation of the crowns, the sizes of the mesio-distal and vestibulolingual diameters of the lower jaw tooth and the vestibulolingual diameter of the upper jaw were analyzed (Table 3). The parameters of the vestibulolingual diameter of the lower jaw of the first individual from the Chagyr Cave tend to those of some finds representing less massive European Neanderthals, and approach the average values of Upper Paleolithic individuals (comparative analysis). analysis of the teeth of 94 individuals, mean 8.7 mm, standard deviation 0.7). The index of the vestibular-lingual diameter of the upper jaw (comparative analysis of the teeth of 82 individuals, average 9.4 mm, standard deviation 0.7) of another individual is closest to the average values of variability of this indicator in European Neanderthals.

The first pre-molar tooth of the lower jaw was found in the Chagyr cave (Table 3). The root length (14.3 mm) is equally within the range of variability of both Neanderthals and Sapiens

Upper Paleolithic, according to the summary of Sh. Bailey (2005, p. 205), and the size of the crown, as well as the size of a similar class of tooth from the Okladnikov Cave, does not allow us to unambiguously attribute the find to Neanderthal forms. According to K. Turner, the first left pre-root tooth of the lower jaw from Okladnikov Cave shows obvious similarity with similar class teeth of Neanderthals from the territory of modern France and the Middle East (Turner, 1990). However, with the expansion of the comparative material, it turned out (our analysis included 88 observations, a vestibulolingual diameter with an average of 8.8 mm and a standard deviation of 0.6) that the size of the tooth from Okladnikov Cave does not exceed the minimum values of variability of Neanderthal forms and is close to some massive forms of the Upper Paleolithic of Europe, i.e. its size is the zone of" overlap " of the Neanderthal and Upper Paleolithic Sapiens variability intervals. According to Viola, this premolar belongs to Neanderthal forms by its phenotypic characteristics (Viola, 2009). Returning to the first pre-root mandibular tooth from the Chagyr cave, we note that it is more massive in meso-distal diameter compared to the find from Okladnikov Cave, and this suggests that it is close to the teeth of European Neanderthals. A similar class of tooth from the Strashnaya Cave is also most similar in its proportions to some European Neanderthal forms (Table 3).

The second pre-root teeth were found in the caves of Chagyrskaya and Strashnaya. In terms of size, the Strashnaya tooth (Upper Premolar), as well as the Obi-Rakhmat tooth of the same class, is most similar to Neanderthal forms [Ibid.]. The tooth from the Chagyr Cave (lower Premolar) corresponds in proportions to the values characteristic of all Paleolithic hominin groups and even for modern Homo groups (comparative analysis according to the vestibular-lingual tooth diameter of 96 individuals, mean 8.9 mm, standard deviation 0.6). However, according to osteoscopic features, this premolar is asymmetric, with a well-developed metaconid and a transverse ridge (see Figure), which makes it possible to discuss it as Neanderthal (see the summary of the prevalence of Neanderthal osteoscopic features: Bailey, 2002).

The dimensions of the first left molar of the lower jaw from Okladnikov Cave correspond to the average values of variability of Late Pleistocene forms (comparative analysis of the vestibular-lingual tooth diameter of 139 individuals, average 11.2 mm, standard deviation 0.6). Unfortunately, it is impossible to clearly differentiate hominins into groups based on the metric parameters of this class of teeth.

A fragment of the lower jaw from layer 6b / 1 in the Chagyr cave (excavations in 2011).

According to odontoscopic signs, the tooth shows archaic features to a greater extent than the pre-root one: a well-defined anterior fossa, generally complicated furrow pattern and the presence of additional tubercles. However, as we have already mentioned, it does not have a distinct epicristid, a feature that is found on almost every tooth of this class in European Neanderthals, and these archaic features are not specific to European Neanderthals. A similar class of tooth from the Chagyr cave, on the contrary, shows a distinct development of the epicristid and the presence of an anterior fossa (see figure).

The second lower molar tooth of the right side from the Chagyr cave is the closest in size to the Neanderthal finds (comparative analysis by weight-tibulo-lingual tooth diameter, 127 individuals, average 11.0 mm, standard deviation 0.7). A slight erasure of the chewing crown does not prevent the development of epicristid and the presence of an anterior fossa on this tooth (see figure).

The root length (17.9 mm) of the second upper right molar from the Chagyr cave falls within the maximum values of the variation range of the indicator for Neanderthals in Europe, which makes it possible to attribute this find to Neanderthal forms. Thus, both molars can be considered close to Neanderthal in terms of different metrical characteristics.

The right and left crowns of the third molar tooth of the lower jaw from the Okladnikov Cave, as emphasized by previous researchers, may have belonged to the same individual (Shpakova and Derevyanko, 2000). Their sizes fall within the range of average values-the minimum for Neanderthals of Europe and the maximum for the Upper Paleolithic population (comparative analysis of the vestibular-lingual tooth diameter of 67 individuals, average 10.7 mm, standard deviation 0.7).

According to odontoscopic signs, they are distinguished by such archaic features as a pronounced folding of the chewing surface, the presence of an anterior fossa, a complicated pattern of furrows and the presence of additional tubercles. However, these features do not allow us to classify these finds as Neanderthal. Recall that B. Viola's studies of the first and third molars from Okladnikov Cave using computed tomography revealed the presence of epicristid on the dentin surface at the junction of enamel and dentin, which makes it possible to discuss these findings as Neanderthal, but with a peculiar odontological complex of features (Viola, 2009).

Conclusion

The comparative analysis allows us to state that Altai Neanderthals occupy an intermediate position between other Eurasian Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans in terms of crown diameters of milk teeth. The crowns of milk teeth of Altai Neanderthals are close in size to the massive forms of both Neanderthals of Europe and Europeans of the Upper Paleolithic. At the same time, they show an affinity for early Middle Eastern Homo.

Our interpretation of the results obtained is limited by the fragmentary nature of the findings. However, we consider it necessary to pay attention to the fact that the class of anterior milk teeth shows a tendency of possible continuity between the Altai Neanderthals and some groups of the Upper Paleolithic population of Siberia (Larch, Strashnaya), and the class of molars is clearly close to the massive Upper Paleolithic forms of Europe and partly Siberia (Malta). To clarify our conclusions, it is necessary to accumulate new information.

According to a set of odontological indicators, the permanent teeth of individuals from Okladnikov Cave show obvious non-specific features. Metric indicators bring them to varying degrees closer to Neanderthals and massive forms of the Upper Paleolithic, while odontoscopic ones relate mainly to non-specific archaic ones.

Based on new findings from the Chagyr cave, it is possible to record the presence of the so-called Neanderthal complex of odontological phenes: the anterior fossa, epicristid on the lower molars, the development of metaconid and crest on the premolars (Viola et al., 2012). In general, teeth from the Okladnikov and Chagyrskaya caves show similarity to those of Paleolithic Sapiens, both in terms of crown sizes and phenotypic features, although some of them can undoubtedly be attributed to Neanderthal forms. This combination of ancient and more epochally advanced odontological features can be considered an odontological feature of Neanderthals from the Altai caves.

Thus, the data of odontology confirm the previously revealed intermediacy of the Altai Neanderthals between other Neanderthals of Eurasia and anatomically modern humans based on morphological features of the skeleton. Further accumulation of the material, as well as the use of genetic data, can help in reconstructing the progress of Neanderthals in the Altai lowlands.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to A. P. Derevyanko, M. V. Shunkov, and St. Markin for the opportunity to study Neanderthal bone remains from Altai caves, and also expresses sincere gratitude to T. A. Chikisheva for the preliminary analysis of anthropological materials from recent field seasons.

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