Psychology of religion is a rapidly developing feld of interdisciplinary research, which covers a wide range of phenomena from the formation of religious conceptual systems and specifcally religious patterns of behavior to processes of religious socialization and indoctrination, phenomena of religious fundamentalism and extremism, etc. The advent of the psychology of religion as an independent discipline in the frst quarter of the 20th century went through a complicated formation, with a search of its subject and its methodology. This article briefy highlights the main stages of development of psychology of religion, sets out the key ideas of leading scientists, and the current state of the discipline. The history of psychology of religion is a history of "ups and downs", in which Western and Russian traditions were clearly diferent. In the West, the development was more gradual and almost without serious interruption, and the main emphasis was on empirical research, while the history of the discipline in Russia was subject to political upheavals, which led to the domination of theoretical and historical works of descriptive nature.

Key words: cognitive science of religion, psychology of religion, religion, religious.

The research was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant 14-18-03771 "Modern Western Psychology of Religion: Adaptation in the Russian context", the recipient organization of funding-St. Tikhon Orthodox University for the Humanities.

Folieva T., Malevich T. Psychology of religion in the XX century: main milestones of development // State, religion, and Church in Russia and abroad. 2016. N4. pp. 68-91.

Folieva, Tatiana and Malevich, Tatiana (2016) "Psychology of Religion as an Academic Project: an Historical Overview", Gosudarstvo, religiia, tserkov' v Rossii i za rubezhom 34(4): 68-91.

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PERHAPS none of the sciences that are included in the complex of religious sciences is so interdisciplinary and does not gravitate so much towards natural science disciplines as the psychology of religion. This science covers a wide range of problems: from the formation of religious conceptual systems and the specifics of religious behavior patterns to the processes of religious socialization and indoctrination, the phenomena of religious fundamentalism and extremism. Its tools include a variety of techniques, from surveillance and interviews to electroencephalography and single-photon emission computed tomography. The problem of religion was addressed by all major psychological schools and trends from pragmatism to psychoanalysis, from humanistic theory to role-playing. But, having a huge methodological and methodological base, which gives this science great opportunities, preserving traditions and actively introducing new approaches, the psychology of religion, unfortunately, cannot yet realize its full potential.

The starting point of the history of psychology as a science is traditionally considered to be the opening of the first psychological laboratory in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt, that is, the moment when philosophical and theoretical constructions gave way to experimental and practical approaches. However, three decades later, voices begin to be heard that psychological knowledge is in a deep crisis and that science itself, as L. S. Vygotsky points out, under the influence of "practical psychologists who develop special areas of applied psychology, psychiatrists and psychotechnicians, representatives of the most accurate and specific part" has reached a certain peak in its development, when "the mere continuation of the same work, the gradual accumulation of material, is already fruitless or even impossible"1. In the Russian literature, following Vygotsky, the crisis was understood as the impossibility of a "big psychological theory" in a situation of constant contradictions between the rapid accumulation of experimental material, on the one hand, and the differentiated "chaotic accumulation of new terms" and "extreme diversity of psychological schools",

1. Vygotsky L. S. Istoricheskiy smysl ' psikhologicheskogo krizisa [The Historical meaning of the psychological crisis]. Psikhologiya razvitiya cheloveka [Psychology of Human Development], Moscow: Smysl Publishing House; Eksmo Publishing House, 2005, p. 11.

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on the other hand, the crisis lasted almost until the 70s of the XX century.2
Indeed, the history of psychology in general, and the psychology of religion in particular, seems to us to be a collection of disparate approaches and a continuous escape from theoretical constructions. This can be explained by the mood of the era in which this science appeared, the subject matter of science itself, and the traditions that dominate the foreign academic environment. In this essay, we would like to organize this "swirling stream", understand what is already in the baggage of this science and what to expect from its development in the future 3.

The Formation of the Psychology of Religion: from Wundt to psychoanalysis

The first person to address the issue of "psychology and religion" was the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, who in his work" Psychology of Peoples " showed that religion arises from feelings of belonging, fear and hope, since the reality around us that requires understanding is subject to a supernatural force. 4 However, the founders of science should still be considered American scientists Granville Stanley Hall and William James.

It was Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924) who wrote the first published work on the psychology of religion, Moral and Religious Education of Children5. In the psychology of children's religion, Hall was a proponent of the evolutionary theory and, based on the thesis that ontogenesis repeats phylogeny, put forward the thesis that religion is a natural part of child development. A similar biologized approach can be found in his work "Jesus Christ in the light of Psychology", where he tries to analyze the motives of Jesus and his followers. 6-

2. Istoriya psikhologii: Period otkrytogo krizisa (nachala 10-kh - seredina 30-kh gg. XX v.) [History of Psychology: The period of open crisis (beginning of the 10th-mid-30s of the XX century)]. 2nd ed., additional Moscow: MSU Publishing House, 1992, pp. 6, 11.

3. Periodization will be based on the accepted periodization of science in the national tradition; it is largely conditional and is primarily associated with the convenience of presenting the material.

4. Wundt V. Psychology of Peoples, Moscow: EKSMO-TERRA FANTASTICA, 2002.

5. Hall, S.G. (1882) "Moral and Religious Training of Children", Princeton Review. New Series IX: 26-45.

6. Hall, S.G. (1923) Jesus, the Christ, in the Light of Psychology. New York, D. Appleton.

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yam James (1842-1910) distinguishes between institutional and personal religion, and for the first time in the history of psychology addresses personal religious experience, a person's subjective experiences, and their relationship to what they "deify"7. However, James does not consider religious experience "in general"; he believes that it is necessary to study the most vivid and pure examples of religious experiences, which include primarily religious conversion (conversion).

One of Hall's most prominent and well - known students was James Leuba (1867-1946), who believed that religion is a product of human consciousness, which seeks to understand the reality around it. Hence the idea of creator gods and the belief in a personal God. Fear is at the heart of religion, and the higher the socio-economic level of development of a society, the less widespread anxiety is. In a highly developed society, religion will be replaced by humanistic conceptions.8 James and Hall's students also included Edwin Diller Starbuck (1866-1947), who first titled his monograph The Psychology of Religion; 9 George Coe (1861-1951), who researched religious education; 10 James Bissett Pratt (1875-1944), whose research interests turned to religious values, evaluations, and attitudes, as well as feelings and emotions. affects 11.

In Europe, during this period, the French school and psychoanalysis were rapidly developing, which were based not so much on empirical research related to surveys and interviews, but on descriptions of certain clinical cases. First of all, this is the research of the famous psychiatrist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893), who investigated the problem of religious obsession and hysteria. Like his colleagues Paul Richet (1849-1933), Charles Binet-Sanglet (1868-1941), and Pierre Janet (1859-1947), Charcot believed that religiosity was related to psychopathology.12 The works of Theodore Flournoy (1854-1920)stand out in the European tradition,

7. James W. Diversity of religious experience / translated from English, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1993.

8. Leuba, J.H. (1909) The Psychological Origin and the Nature of Religion. London: Archibald Constable.

9. Starbuck, E.D. (1899) The Psychology of Religion. New York: Scribner.

10. Coe, G.A. (1916) The Psychology of Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

11. Pratt J.B. (1908) "The Psychology of Religion", The Harvard Theological Review 1(4): 435-454.

12. Huguelet, Ph., Koenig, H.G. (eds) (2009) Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry, pp. 201-202. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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He proposed a distinction between religious psychology and the psychology of religion , an empirical discipline based on the principles of transcendental exclusion and biological interpretation. Psychologists of religion should study " religious life... such as it is revealed in the personal consciousness of the subject " 13.

The theoretical study of religion from a psychoanalytic point of view begins undoubtedly with Sigmund Freud and continues with Carl Jung, Ronald Fairbairn, Harry Gantrip, Donald Winnicott, and a number of other scholars. As Jakob Belsen points out, the development of psychoanalysis takes place in five directions. They include understanding how Freud himself interpreted the phenomenon of religion (in terms of "neurosis", "projection", "transference"); revealing the research approach of psychoanalysis to the problems of religion (for example, the study of symbolism, image formation and their content); applying the psychoanalytic approach in empirical research; interaction of psychoanalysis and other branches of psychology understanding the role of psychoanalysis in modern religious studies 18.
At the same time, the psychology of religion in Russia is actively developing. On the one hand, the works of foreign authors are translated (for example, in 1910 - "The Diversity of Religious Experience" by W. James, in 1913 - "Principles of Religious Philosophy" by Theodore Flournoy19). On the other hand, Russian psychology

13. Flournoy T. Principles of religious psychology. Kiev: Kievskoe relig. - philos. o-vo, 1913. p. 6.

14. On the views of Z. Many works have been written on religion by Freud and C. G. Jung. See for example: Belzen, J. A. (ed) (2009) Changing the Scientific Study of Religion: Beyond Freud? Theoretical, Empirical and Clinical Studies from Psychoanalytic Perspectives. New York: Springer; Aziz, R. (2007) The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung. New York: The State University of New York Press.

15. Fairbairn, W.R.D. (1952) Psychoanalytic Studies оf The Personality. L.: Tavistock Publications.

16. Guntrip, H. (1949) Psychotherapy and Religion. London: Independent Press.

17. Winnicott, D.W. (1953) "Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena", International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 34: 89-97.

18. Belzen, J.A. (2009) "Past Freud - Beyond Freud?", in J.A. Belzen (ed) Changing the Scientifc Study of Religion: Beyond Freud? Theoretical, Empirical and Clinical Studies from Psychoanalytic Perspectives, p. 3. New York: Springer.

19. James V. Diversity of religious experience / translated from English by V. G. Malakhieva-Mirovich and M. V. Shik; edited by S. V. Lurie. Rus. Mysl, 1910. Flournoy T. Principles of religious psychology.

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religion becomes independent, balancing between the desire to get away from philosophical speculation and the desire to avoid the dominant theory of classical conditioning by I. P. Pavlov at that time. The first extreme led to the preservation of the psychology of religion only as a part of philosophical knowledge. The second way could lead to the reduction of religion to conditioned reflexes.

One of the first Russian psychologists to address religious issues was Mikhail Matveyevich Troitsky (1835-1899). He considered religion as a "separation of non-phenomenal reality" and identified two stages of development in any religion: folk religion, or mythology, and learned religion, or theology. Religious belief, in his opinion, cannot be considered "the product of one mind"; it arises through the laws of association: one idea can evoke and even tends to evoke another by similarity.20 Some questions were raised by Georgy Ivanovich Chelpanov (1862-1936), who defined " religious feeling: these are the feelings that are associated with the idea of God and the highest perfection. Chelpanov attributed reverence, gratitude, and devotion to religious feelings, which are combined into feelings of love for God. Such feelings, along with moral ones, can arise in society and "presuppose a developed idea of our" I "" 21.

After 1917, a new stage in the development of all sciences, including religious studies, psychology and the psychology of religion, begins in Russia. The old pre-revolutionary system of thinking was broken, and new, sometimes bizarre, concepts and ideas emerged on the basis of Marxism. One of them is the theory of social stimuli by Mikhail Andreevich Reisner (1868-1928). Marxism, in his opinion, should be correlated with psychological and physiological theories, first of all with the theory of reflexes by I. P. Pavlov. From his point of view, unconditional reflexes are a "system of production relations", and conditioned reflexes are "cultural and ideological superstructures", which include, among other things, religion.22 Culturally-

20. Troitsky M. M. Nauka o dukh [Science of the spirit]: General properties and laws of the human spirit. In 2 vols. Vol. 2. Moscow: N. A. Abrikosov, 1882, pp. 189, 191-193.

21. Chelpanov G. I. Textbook of psychology, Moscow: t-vo "V. V. Dumnov, nasl. br. Salaevykh", 1915. pp. 171-172

22. Reisner M. A. Problemy sotsial'noi psikhologii [Problems of social psychology]. Rostov-on-Don: Burevestnik Publ., 1926, pp. 26-28.

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the ideological superstructure is the system of social stimuli "through which the social person influences the external world" 23. Mystical-religious experience contributes to the organization of society, it is extremely stable and flexible, since it has "the smallest connection, on the one hand, between real experience and the signal that fixes it, and on the other - between this a signal as an irritant and the psychology of a person organized with its help " 24.

At the beginning of the 1920s, a strong interest in psychoanalysis began: the Russian psychoanalytic tradition tried to combine the teachings of Z. Freud, Karl Marx and the new social reality. The State Psychoanalytic Institute, established in 1922, held a seminar on religious systems and sectarianism; its head, Dr. Roza Abramovna Averbukh, published a remarkable report in 1922, "Case Psychoanalysis: Confiscation of Church Property", where she draws analogies between sexuality and religion, and compares the protection of the church with feelings for the mother25.

The period from the end of the XIX century to the 30s of the XX century was undoubtedly one of the most productive in the world history of the psychology of religion. It was then that the main approaches were identified, methods and tools developed. However, not all researchers consider this stage as a period of "take-off". Back in 1908. James Bissett Pratt pointed out that there was not much "uplift": "Our bookshelves and magazines are loaded with works on "religious psychology", most of which turn out to be no more psychological than anatomical or geographical."26. Since the late 1920s, empirical research has been rapidly losing its popularity. For example, Abraham Cronbach, in a review of the literature for 1926-1928, says that only "imitators and lovers of quoting" are heard, and likens the psychology of religion to alchemy.27 The reason for this situation, which Benjamin Beit-Hallami called the phenomenon of " take-off

23. Ibid., p. 29.

24. Ibid., p. 92.

25. Averbuch, R. (1922) "Psychoanalyse eines Gerichtsfalles: Zur Konfskation der Kirchenschatze in Russland", Internationale Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse 8(24): 523-524.

26. Pratt, J.B. "The Psychology of Religion", p. 435.

27. Cronbach, A. (1928) "The Psychology of Religion: A Bibliographical Survey", The Psychological Bulletin 25(12): 701-719.

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and the decline of the "psychology of religion" 28 was caused by the lack of interest in psychology not so much in religious experiences as in religion as a whole - both under the influence of historical factors and in connection with changes in methodological preferences caused, among other things, by the spread of behaviorism and positivism29.

In Russia, by the end of this period, the psychology of religion began to be perceived as an "auxiliary discipline". Konstantin Nikolaevich Kornilov (1879-1957) pointed out that psychology is needed to develop methods of "fighting on the anti-religious front" and that "the Institute of Experimental Psychology conducts this work on the instructions of a number of political and public organizations."30 However, even this" auxiliary " status of the psychology of religion in the late 1930s could not be preserved, which was due to the defeat of psychology as a whole. Psychoanalysts were the first to suffer. In 1925, the State Psychoanalytic Institute was closed, and in 1930, the Russian Psychoanalytic Society was closed. In 1936, the Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU(b) of 04.07.1936 "On pedological perversions in the Narkompros system" was published, after which non-Marxist approaches in psychology were banned, and the psychology of religion practically disappeared until the 1950s. The most sad for science was the condemnation of experimental work of researchers: "The practice of pedologists... it has mostly been reduced to false scientific experiments and countless surveys conducted among schoolchildren and their parents in the form of meaningless and harmful questionnaires, tests, etc., which have long been condemned by the party. " 31
The first empirical work on the psychology of religion should be considered the book "The Diversity of Religious Experience"by William James. As we will recall, in it James addresses the purest examples and most vivid manifestations of religious experience. However, he uses several empirical methods: he refers to data from surveys conducted by Edwin Starbuck, obrashch-

28. Beit-Hallahmi, B. (1974) "Psychology of Religion 1880-1930: The Rise and Fall of a Psychological Movement", Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 10: 84-90.

29. Ibid.

30. Kornilov K. N. Marxist psychology and socialist construction // Psychoneurological sciences in the USSR (materials of the First All-Union Congress on the study of human behavior) / ed.by A. B. Zalkind. M.-L., 1930. pp. 12-14.

31. Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) of 04.07.1936 "On pedological perversions in the system of People's Commissariat of Education" / / Pravda. N 183. 05.07.1936.

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It refers to autobiographical documents and religious literature. Following James, Starbuck and Leuba primarily used quantitative research methods - the results of mass surveys, statistical data. In the European tradition, from Jean-Martin Charcot to Sigmund Freud, qualitative research methods dominated: description of pathological cases, observation, analysis of introspection, gradual use of projective techniques.32
In general, the period from the end of the XIX century to the 30s of the XX century is a time of transformation of views: from the apology of religion to its reduction to pathology and neurosis; but at this stage, the psychology of religion finally established itself as an independent discipline.

From the end of World War II to the end of the 1970s

The gradual development of the psychology of religion was interrupted by the Second World War, during which applied aspects of psychological science were more in demand in society: rehabilitation of the military and wounded, psychology of war, social psychology, etc. After the war, psychology in general and the psychology of religion in particular began to develop rapidly and become institutionalized, professional associations appeared (note that in Russia such organizations have never existed and still do not exist)33.

Science itself is dominated by several major trends. This is an analytical psychology that emerged under the influence of the ideas and theories of C. G. Jung, primarily his concept of the archetype. James

32. For more details on this, see: Malevich T. V. Empirical methods of research of religious experience in the psychology of religion: history and modern trends (the second half of the XX-beginning of the XXI century). Vestnik Volgogradskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Series 7: Philosophy. Sociology and social technologies. 2015. N1. pp. 83-95.

33. In 1946-1948, the American Catholic Psychological Association was established in the United States, in the late 1960s. This community was renamed the PIRI Association ("Psychologists Interested in Religious Issues"). Since 1976, PIRI has been a member of the American Psychological Association as Division 36, Psychology of Religion, and since 2012 it has been called The Society for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. In Europe, a similar association was established as early as 1914 in Germany and was called "Internationale Gesellschaft fur Religionspsychologie". However, due to the outbreak of the First World War and subsequent events, the organization's activities were interrupted and fully restored only in the 1960s.There are no independent departments or departments, and the psychology of religion is most often studied at psychology faculties.

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Hillman (1926-2011) believed that personality has many archetypes and all of them are images of the unconscious. 34 The deity is an archetypal configuration, so psychology must answer the questions "not why or how, but what exactly is represented and, ultimately, who, what divine figure is addressing us."35 Erich Neumann (1905-1960) notes that in modern society, the old religious and ethical values have lost their power over a person, and this is a danger for the individual due to the loss of life guidelines. Religion is rooted in the collective unconscious and maintains the integrity of society, although many of the archetypes associated with it are dominant. Mystical experience is important for a person, because it is a constant "surprise" before yourself and the world 36.

At this time, neo-Freudianism is developing, which rejects the concept of pansexuality, but continues to consider religion either as a way to avoid anxiety and anxiety (k. Horney), or as a social neurosis (E. Fromm)37. Later, in the 1970s and 1990s, Freudianism was developed in the works of Antoine Vergot (1921-2013), who in his research addressed the relationship between psychopathology and religiosity, the analysis of religious images, and the psychoanalytic interpretation of the Gospel. 38 Today, one of the most authoritative authors working within the framework of psychoanalysis is Ana-Maria Rizzuto (b. 1932), who proved her model of forming the image of God. The child, according to Rezzuto, rethinks its interaction with the world through various representations. The internal representation of God is the highest point of consolidation of disparate representations into complex structures that mirror the relationship with the mother as the first Significant Other. The process of creating an image of God is integrative

34.J. Hillman Internal search: collection of works of different years, Moscow: Kogito-Center, 2004, p. 79.

35. Ibid.

36. Neumann E. Deep psychology and new ethics, St. Petersburg: Academic Project, 1999.

37. Horni K. Neurosis and personal growth struggle for self-realization / trans. by E. I. Zamfir. St. Petersburg: East-European Institute of Psychoanalysis and BSK, 1997; Fromm E. Psychoanalysis and religion / translated from English by A. Dvanova. Moscow: AST, 2010.

38. Vergot, A. (1988) Guilt and Desire: Religious Attitudes and Their Pathological Derivatives. New Haven: Yale University Press.

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a process that allows the individual to achieve the integrity that is necessary "to maintain the meaning of being <himself>" 39.

We have already mentioned behaviorism as one of the dominant trends in psychology. Representatives of this movement were generally skeptical of religion, believing that it is either a complex set of learned responses to specific stimuli, or a reaction aimed at obtaining positive experiences.40
Humanistic psychology, which can be considered as a kind of opposition to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, was also authoritative during this period. For an individual, self-actualization is important, including through religious experience (A. Maslow), and the search for the meaning of life is of great importance. At the same time, "religiosity is, in fact, the belief in a higher meaning, the hope that life has a higher meaning." 41 Frankl). Gordon Allport (1897-1967), the author of the famous dispositional theory of personality traits and the concept of external and internal religiosity, stands out among all the authors of this direction. The standard for him is a "mature religious personality" that has the following features: a departure from egocentrism, a desire for self-sacrifice; differentiated religiosity; a holistic religious and philosophical picture of the world that combines cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects; firmness of beliefs; a complex and structured system of motivation for religious behavior. It is opposed by an "immature religious person" who lacks criticism, is dominated by a belief in the exclusivity and truth of their views, etc.42 Based on these models, the author identifies two forms of religious orientation. The first form - external-takes place when religiosity is a certain tool for the individual that helps to satisfy needs. The second form - internal - implies the perception of faith as the highest value in itself, and communities-as fraternities. A person's needs and motives are secondary to their faith, and such an orientation is often considered to be the same.

39. Rizzuto, A. -M. (1979) The Birth of the Living God: a Psychoanalytic Study. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.

40. Blakemore, Wm. B. (1941). Religious Experience in Terms of Sociological Behaviorism. Chicago.

41. Frankl V. Suffering from the meaninglessness of life: actual psychotherapy. Novosibirsk: Siberian Univ. Publishing House, 2008, p. 89.

42. Olport G. Lichnost ' v psikhologii [Personality in psychology], Moscow: KSP+; SPb.: JUVENTA, 1998.

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it is not therapeutic, since the main motive of the individual's activity is compassion. Allport and his colleagues developed the famous "Religious Orientation Scale"technique at Harvard in order to confirm their theoretical positions empirically.43
Наследником гуманистической психологии становится трансперсональная психология (Р. Ассаджоли, С. Гроф)44, методы и идеи которой, хотя они перекликаются с концепциями У. Джеймса, К. Юнга и др., вызывают множество споров. Трансперсональная психология стремится к психосинтезу, расширению границы собственного "Я", постижению духовного опыта и достижению глубин бессознательного. Параллельно в науку вводятся околонаучные приемы - методы народной медицины, йоги, медитации; применяется и анализируется воздействие психоделических препаратов и холотропного дыхания.

During the period under review, much attention is paid to the problem of religious development of the individual, in the spirit of the tradition of Jean Piaget (1896-1980). The most famous are the theories of Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987), who proposed to distinguish six stages of moral development (and, presumably, the seventh, at which religion is connected with morality)45, and James Fowler (1940-2015), who argued for six stages of faith development - the "intuitive-projective" stage of 3-7 years, the "mythical-logical" stage of the development of faith.literary "faith of younger schoolchildren," synthetic-conventional "faith of adolescents," individual-reflexive "faith of adults, the stage of "binding" faith in middle age. The "universalizing" faith of individual, rare individuals, saints and ascetics stands apart.46
In the late 1970s, a heated discussion began in the West about the very possibility of experimental methods in the psychology of religion [47] - against the background of disputes about the applicability of experiments in social science.-

43. Allport, G.W., Ross, M.J. (1967) "Personal Religious Orientation and Prejudice", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5: 432-443.

44. Maloney, A. (2007) Alchemy of the Soul: Integral Healing: the Work of Psychology and Spirituality. Nevada City, CA: Blue Dolphin Pub.

45. Kohlberg, L. (1981) Essays on Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row.

46. Fowler, J.W. (1976) "Stages in Faith: The Structural Developmental Approach", in T.C. Hennessy (ed.) Values and Moral Education, pp. 173-211. New York.

47. См., например: Batson, C.D. (1977) "Experimentation in Psychology of Religion: An Impossible Dream", Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religion 16(4): 413-418; Yeatts, J.R., Asher, W. (1979) "Can We Afford Not to Do True Experiments in the Psychology

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social sciences 48. In particular, Daniel Batson, pointing out the problematic nature of experiments in this area, related to both ethical and practical considerations, proposed a "working compromise" - the use of "quasi-experimental techniques" that, although they do not meet the criteria of experiments themselves, but approach them as closely as possible and perform their main function - empirical verification of certain types of experiments. other theories 49. An example of such a quasi-experimental study of religious experiences was the research conducted by the group of Ralph Hood (b. 1942), in which mystical experiences were studied using sensory deprivation (complete or partial isolation from external stimuli). All respondents were divided into groups according to their religious orientation, and the experience that the respondents experienced in the floating capsule was evaluated on the "mysticism scale". It was found that the religious content of mystical experiences is determined by the total impact of the religious context and personal qualities of subjects 50.

After a long break in the 1960s and 1980s, interest in the psychology of religion is reviving in the Soviet Union. The first serious publications appeared in 1960-1961, and in 1969 the first All-Union Conference on the Psychology of Religion was held. In their reasoning, researchers most often rely on the works of L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev and the activity approach. This approach, which was based on Marxism, in the form of a thesis can be designated as follows:"it is not consciousness that determines activity, but activity that determines consciousness."

The most complete picture of the state of the psychology of religion in the Soviet Union is provided by the 11th issue of the yearbook "Questions of Scientific Atheism", devoted to the topic "Psychology and Religion", which was published in 1971 under the editorship of D. M. Ugrinovich,

of Religion? A reply to Batson", Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religion 18(1): 86-89.

48. See: Campbell D. Models of experiments in social psychology and applied research. St. Petersburg: Socio-psychological Center, 1996, pp. 27-33.

49. Batson, C. D. "Experimentation in Psychology of Religion: An Impossible Dream", pp. 414-416; Campbell, D. Models of experiments in social psychology and applied research, pp. 107-108.

50. Hood, R.W., Morris, R.J., Watson, P.J. "Quasi-Experimental Elicitation of the Differential Report of Religious Experience among Intrinsic and Indiscriminately Pro-Religious Types".

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K. K. Platonov and V. N. Kolbanovsky. The collection defines the subject of the psychology of religion and its place in the system of sciences, and also discusses its main issues: the psychological roots of religion; the problem of the structure of the religious psyche; the specifics of religious experiences and religious feelings; a specific study of the religiosity of the population; the creation and development of research methods 51. Cautious and unsure-this is how you can describe the authors ' texts. They only establish a new categorical apparatus and search for empirical methods. So, the authors discuss whether faith can be non-religious 52 and what is a "religious mood" 53, argue about the influence of religiosity on the individual (positive or destructive). Here we find a description not of psychological, but of "concrete sociological" researchs54, which indicates that scientists do not know the actual psychological methods.

In the same period, there are authors whose works can be considered classic for the Soviet psychology of religion. First of all, this is Konstantin Konstantinovich Platonov (1906-1984), according to whom a psychologist should study religion, since it is a complex social phenomenon that includes organization, cult, religious psychology and religious ideology.55 Religious rituals and rites he refers to religious neurodynamic stereotypes, believing, following I. P. Pavlov, that their implementation creates a person's positive emotions and a sense of calm.56 Dmitry Modestovich Ugrinovich (1923-1990) published the monograph "Psychology of Religion"in 1969. In it, he introduces the names of foreign authors unknown in Soviet science into scientific circulation. However, he does not only referee the work of the eno-

51. Ugrinovich D. M. O predmetete psikhologii religii i ee mesto v sisteme nauk [On the subject of psychology of religion and its place in the system of sciences]. Issue 11, 1971, pp. 9-28; Planov K. K. Psikhologicheskie korni religii [Psychological roots of religion] // Questions of scientific atheism. Issue 11, 1971, pp. 29-42.

52. Borunkov Yu. F. On the concept of "religious faith" / / Questions of scientific atheism. Issue 11, 1971, pp. 43-57.

53. Parygin B. D., Erunov B. A., Bukin V. R. Religious mood and its structure.Voprosy nauchnogo atheizma [Issues of scientific atheism]. Issue 11, 1971, pp. 58-81.

54. See for example: Yablokov I. N. On the scientific interpretation of the dynamics of the psychological states of believers in prayer and repentance // Questions of scientific atheism. Issue 11, 1971. pp. 185-202; Pismannik M. G. Metodika sotsial'no-psikhologicheskikh issledovaniy religioznosti [Methodology of socio-psychological studies of religiosity]. Issue 11, 1971, pp. 205-218.

55. Platonov K. K. Psychology of religion. Facts and Thoughts, Moscow: Politizdat Publ., 1967, p. 27.

56. Ibid., p. 42.

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strange colleagues, but also sets out his vision of the psychology of religion as a science. According to Ugrinovich,"the individual's psyche does not generate religious faith by itself, but under the influence of living conditions, certain mental states are created that favor the individual's assimilation of religious beliefs from the environment" 57, that is, religiosity is always a social product. The third author in this galaxy is Marta Anatolyevna Popova (1940-1980), who believed that the psychology of religion is a branch of social psychology that studies the nature, content, structure, dynamics and function of religious psychology. Popova paid close attention to the history of the psychology of religion abroad, and her two key monographs "Freudianism and Religion" and "Critique of the Psychological Apology of Religion"are devoted to this topic.58
Thus, we can speak about the second birth of the psychology of religion in Russia in the 1960s and 1980s. However, despite the fact that Soviet scientists defined it as a branch of social psychology, it was more interested in religious scholars, thereby acquiring not an empirical, but a theoretical and historiographical character.

Development of the discipline in the last decades of the XX century and its current state

Today, there are several theories that, along with the previous ones, can be considered dominant. First of all, this is the role theory of religion by Hjalmar Sunden (1908-1993), who in 1959 proposed to study religiosity as an assignment of the role of religion. The second authoritative theory is attribution: religious systems offer individuals a set of religious attributions to give meaning to a particular event/phenomenon in life. Within the framework of this theory, such well-known psychologists of religion as Bernard Spilka (b.1926), Phillip Robert Shaver (b. 1944) and a number of others conducted their research. 60
57. Ugrinovich D. M. Psychology of Religion, Moscow: Politizdat, 1986, p. 24.

58. Popova M. A. Freudism and Religion, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1985; Popova M. A. Kritika psikhologicheskoi apologii religii: (Sovrem. amer. psychology of religion). Moscow: Mysl, 1972.

59. Sunden, H. (1987) "Saint Augustine and the Psalter in the Light of Role-Psychology", Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religion 26(3): 366-412.

60. Spilka, B., Schmidt, G. (1983) "General Attribution Theory for the Psychology of Religion: The Infuence of Event-character on Attributions to God", Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religion 22: 326-339; Spilka, B., Shaver, P., Kirkpatrick, L.A. (1985)

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Religion as a phenomenon of cultural life was studied by representatives of the so-called "cultural psychology" (D. Wolf, J. van Belsen). Following the representatives of humanistic psychology, religion in this approach continues to be perceived as an effective psychotherapeutic tool that integrates the individual and helps her find solutions to emerging problems.61
The modern psychology of religion does not ignore the "classical" problems of religious studies: religious experience (R. Hood); the relationship between religiosity, psychological health, and stress (K. Kropotkin). Parchment); psychological roots of religion (from neural activity to projection)62. Empirical research focuses on a wide range of issues: from the specifics of religious action to the study of religious / mystical experience; from the influence of religion on the individual and on moral behavior to the relationship of the level and degree of religiosity with the level of fertility, divorce, crime, social integration, etc. 63

In Russia, a certain turning point occurred in the 1990s, which is connected both with the general "revival" in the religious sphere, and with the lectures given in Moscow by classics - Viktor Frankl, Karl Rogers and Stanislav Grof - and the popularization of psychology in general. In the Russian tradition, however, the theoretical and historical direction still prevails , both among Russian psychologists and religious scholars. 64 The number of empirical studies is growing, but there is little interest in them65.

"A General Attribution Theory for the Psychology of Religion", Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religion 24: 1-20.

61. Belzen, J.A (2010) "Religion and Self: Notions from a Cultural Psychological Perspective", Pastoral Psychology 59(4): 399-409.

62. Hood, R.W., Morris, R.J., Watson, P.J. (1990) "Quasi-Experimental Elicitation of the Differential Report of Religious Experience among Intrinsic and Indiscriminately Pro-Religious Types", Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religio 29(2): 164-172; Pargament, K.I. (1997) The Psychology of Religion and Coping: Theory, Research, Practice. New York: Guilford.

63. Hood, R.W., Spilka, B., Hunsberger, B., Gorsuch, R.L. (2003). The Psychology of Religion: An Empirical Approach. 2nd Edition. New York: Guilford.

64. Mikhelson O. K. Podkhody k izucheniyu religii v sovremennoy evolyutsionnoy psikhologii [Approaches to the study of religion in modern evolutionary Psychology]. Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and Abroad]. 2013. N 3. pp. 63-76; Bulanova I. S., Chernov A. Yu. Classification of types of religious experience // Bulletin of Volgogr. state university. Series 11: Natural Sciences. 2011. N 2. pp. 82-87.

65. See for example: Dvoinin A.M. Smyslozhiznennye orientatsii religioznoi lichnosti [Meaning-life orientations of a religious person]. Se-

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The only new trend was the emergence of the so-called "Orthodox psychology", which, according to its apologists, is knowledge "about the conditions of human growth to the extent of the Good News of salvation."66 However, despite all efforts, attempts to bring together theological reflections and experimental research of psychology, in our opinion, remain fruitless.67
In the 1980s and 1990s, the role of the traditional "measurement paradigm" in psychology in general and in the psychology of religion in particular, based on questionnaire surveys, psychometric scales, and statistical data processing, continues to be rethought.68 Religious psychologists are increasingly leaning towards mixed research methods, which involve, for example, combining the above-mentioned quantitative tools with qualitative ones, such as semi-structured and phenomenologically oriented interviews. 69
In the 1980s, cognitive religious studies emerged as a separate interdisciplinary project, which helped to return the study of religion to the experimental track, becoming a convenient platform for testing hypotheses and building predictive models.70 A distinctive feature of cognitive religious studies as a research program in the psychology of religion is the refusal to consider individual, idiosyncratic problems.-

ria 4: Pedagogy. Psychology. 2011. N 3 (22). pp. 137-151; Dvoinin A.M. Vera kak fenomen soznaniya: k postanovke problemy [Faith as a phenomenon of consciousness: to the problem statement] // Bulletin of the Moscow City Pedagogical University. Series: Pedagogy and Psychology. 2014. N 4(30). pp. 57-64; Malyavina S. S. Determinants of the formation of religious personality // Bulletin of the Orthodox St. Tikhon's University for the Humanities. Series IV. Pedagogy. Psychology. 2015. Issue 2 (37), pp. 119-131.

66. Slobodchikov V. I. Khristianskaya psikhologiya v sisteme psikhologicheskogo znaniya [Christian psychology in the system of psychological knowledge]. Journal of the Higher School of Economics. 2007. Vol. 4. N 2. P. 95.

67. See the big discussion about this, which was attended by supporters and opponents of confessional psychology: Psychology-with or without religion? // Psychology. Journal of the Higher School of Economics. 2007. Vol. 4. N 2. pp. 56-113; Psychology - with or without religion: continuation of the discussion. Journal of the Higher School of Economics. 2007. Vol. 4. N 4. pp. 3-123.

68. См.: Gorsuch, R.L. (1984) "Measurement: The Boon and Bane of Investigating Religion", American Psychologist 39(3): 228-236.

69. См., например: Williamson, W.P., Hood, R.W. (2011) "Spirit Baptism: A Phenomenological Study of Religious Experience", Mental Health, Religion & Culture 14(6): 543-559.

70. In Russian, for a brief overview of cognitive religious studies, see: Shakhno-vich M. Kognitivnaya nauka i issledovaniya religii [Cognitive Science and research of Religion]. Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and Abroad]. 2013. N 3. pp. 32-62.

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religious phenomena and appeal to general, cross-cultural phenomena of religious thinking and behavior that are conditioned by the cognitive architecture of a person and the limitations that it imposes on his thinking and behavior in principle 71. Another, no less important, feature is the partial approach to the interpretation of religion: religious cognitive scientists are not interested in" religion in general " or "religion in general". religion sui generis-their task is to identify those patterns of thinking and behavior that are considered religious, and explain why these patterns receive religious interpretation and turn out to be cross-culturally widespread.72 In other words, from the cognitive point of view, religion is a "natural" and possibly a byproduct of "a set of ordinary cognitive processes"73 that regulate our daily life, including at the unconscious level.

Conclusion: what's next?

Thus, we can see that the psychology of religion is a dynamic project that largely depends on the development of psychological science as a whole, but in the last few decades it has become increasingly independent. Several key points make this project relevant.

First of all, the modern psychology of religion cannot but be an experimental science - to the extent that it wants to remain a science and psychology. It is possible that we are not talking about full-fledged experimental, but rather about quasi-experimental types of research, but they also allow us to test hypotheses and trace hypothetical causal connections. A special area that only justifies its right to exist, but may be very promising , is the use of special gadgets that allow you to bring the empirical study of religious phenomena from laboratories to the real world and explore the everyday side of religion.-

71. См., например: Barrett, J.L. (2011) "Cognitive Science of Religion: Looking Back, Looking Forward", Journal for the Scientifc Study of Religion 50(2): 231.

72. См. Barrett, J.L. (2011) "Cognitive Science of Religion: Looking Back, Looking Forward"; Pyysiainen, I. (2003) How Religion Works: Towards a New Cognitive Science of Religion, pp. 1-3. Leiden: Brill.

73. Pyysiainen, I. (2000) "Exploring the Natural Foundations of Religion", Trends in Cognitive Science 4(1): 29.

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In addition to studying self-reports and texts, researchers can directly observe human behavior in the context of their daily activities, which gives researchers a unique opportunity for (non -) presence.
At the same time, the psychology of religion cannot be an exclusively experimental science: following its parent discipline, it should take advantage of interdisciplinary methods, since they allow maintaining the external validity of research and better cover social phenomena. Psychologists who exclude theoretical considerations create only sets of statistical data, and not a complete picture. The specifics of empirical work in psychology and the variety of approaches indicate that modern psychology of religion cannot be a desk science and a solitary occupation - for relevant projects, an interdisciplinary team, equipment, community of interests and a single categorical apparatus are necessary. At the same time, psychologists of religion should avoid both experimental reduction and speculative theorizing that ignores historical realities, cultural specifics, and features of different religions.

However, to suspect the psychology of religion of reducing religion to psychological and cognitive phenomena is as silly as to accuse physicists of reducing the world to its electrons and protons. Religion has a psychological and cognitive dimension - and it needs to be studied, unless, of course, we assume that religious people have a special "religious brain" and special "religious organs" that exist in a special religious world that is inaccessible to science.

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