This article explores the analytical value of Islamic reformation as a conceptual framework for the analysis of the current situation in the Islamic world. Different attitudes toward this concept are compared, resulting in the conclusion that any valid assessment requires a definition of reformation as a religious and social process that can exist outside the specific period of the Protestant Reformation. Delineation of the general characteristics of reformation makes it possible to demonstrate that current tendencies in the Islamic world are similar to those occurring during the Reformation and that Islamic fundamentalists are the driving force of this new reformation. This means that it is incorrect to assess their values and their influence as archaic, reactionary, or fascist. The worldview of Islamic fundamentalists contains both modernizing and anti-modernizing features, and some elements of their influence on society are of a modernizing nature.

Keywords: reformation, Islamic fundamentalism, protestant ethic, modernization, individualism, generation conflict.

The article is based on the research project 2016 "Transformation of values in the context of modernization in the North Caucasus" of the Gaidar Institute for Economic Policy.

Starodubrovskaya I. [Islamic Reformation: Heuristic value of the approach]. Gosudarstvo, religiya, tserkva v Rossii i za rubezhom [State, Religion, Church in Russia and abroad]. 2017. N 3. pp. 11-50.

Starodubrovskaya, Irina (2017) "Islamic Reformation: The Heuristic Value of the Approach", Gosudarstuo, religiia, tserkov' v Rossii i za rubezhom 35(3): 11-50.

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Islamic Reformation-legitimation of the concept

WHAT is happening in the modern world community is largely determined by the dramatic changes that are characteristic of the Islamic world: religious revival, increased conflict, a sharp increase in the political role of aggressive fundamentalist views calling for a return to the roots and the revival of the Islamic caliphate. However, despite the enormous importance of these processes, their theoretical understanding is not systematic, and the available estimates vary very widely.

So, if we look at the understanding of the essence of those Islamic trends that experts call fundamentalist or neo-fundamentalist, Salafi, Wahhabi, we will find a variety of interpretations. The widespread position that comes from Bernard Lewis1 is associated with a rigid opposition between Western, modernization and fundamentalist models of development. Fundamentalism in such a logic is considered as ideological traditionalism, as a desire to return to the past, to the Middle Ages. Another interpretation recognizes the modernity of fundamentalist trends, but connects them with the"dark side of modernity":

Militant Islam becomes best understood not as a religion, but as a political ideology. In fact, it is the heir of both fascism and Marxism-Leninism in its nature (radical utopia), means (totalitarianism) and goals (conquest of the world)2.

Finally, there is a point of view in the intellectual field that views Islamic fundamentalism as a modernizing ideology without any reservations:

1. Bernard Lewis is an American scholar of Oriental studies, a specialist in the history of the Middle East. He outlined his views on the relationship between the West and the Islamic world, in particular, in his well-known work, translated into Russian: "What's wrong? The Path of the West and the Middle East: Progress and Traditionalism".

2. Pipes, D. (2008) In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power. Preface to the Transaction Edition, p. xi. New Brunswick (USA) and London (UK), Transaction Publishers.

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Fundamentalist Islam and related nationalisms offer a much closer ideology ... to the ideology of the Great French Revolution, which is usually considered by the bearers of general stereotypes, who oppose the Western Enlightenment to the fundamentalist religion in general and the Islamic East in particular 3.

This position is supported by a number of well-known researchers of Islamic issues in the North Caucasus, in particular, in Dagestan:

Salafism can be considered as an ideological shell of the process of social modernization and the separation of the individual from the system of clan ties that still cement Dagestan society.4
Such ambiguous assessments suggest that this phenomenon is something deeply heterogeneous, contradictory and non-linearly affecting what is happening. And they make us recall that period in Western history, which was characterized by very similar trends - the surge of active religiosity, the desire to return to the roots, the spread of religious knowledge, the desire to transform not only the faith, but also the life of each person in accordance with religious dogmas. We are talking about the period of the Reformation, the emergence of Protestant movements in Europe. Can the analogy with the European Reformation contribute to understanding the processes taking place in the modern Islamic world?

I must say that the idea of using an analytical framework related to the Reformation 5 in relation to Islam is far from new. And the attitude to it is also not unambiguous. Some experts perceive it as unacceptable "Eurocentrism".

3. Calhoun K. Nationalism, Moscow: Publishing House "Territory of the Future", 2006, pp. 225-226.

4. Makarov D. Official and unofficial Islam in Dagestan, Moscow, 2000, p. 27.

5. In the following text, for the sake of clarity, I will write the word "reformation" with a capital letter when referring to a particular historical period, the Protestant Reformation, and with a small letter when the term is used to refer to a broader category that can also be extended to other historical periods. In citations, the spelling of the term "reformation" is retained in the editorial office of the cited source.

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This is the metaphorization, or, to put it more broadly, the transfer to Islam of concepts developed in a different (non-Islamic) cultural environment and intended for the conceptual development of another religion (Christianity). It is as if, in discussing the camel, by metaphorically calling it " the ship of the desert,"we have moved on to arguments about shipbuilding-instead of examining the camel itself. 6
Alexander Ignatenko, who used such a vivid metaphor, explains the impossibility of the Islamic reformation by saying that the Islamic community (umma) does not have one officially recognized doctrine, as Catholicism was in the Western Christian world, it is divided into many sects. Therefore, it is wrong to "look at the history of Islam from the standpoint of Christian centrism", considering that " in medieval Islam there was "orthodoxy" and "heresies"", simply "Muslims have different, divergent opinions on different issues" 7.

If we recognize the Reformation as a purely religious phenomenon, then this position has some grounds. However, from the theological point of view, the Reformation is in general a common religious schism, which contrasts the official religious tradition of the Catholic Church with other interpretations, in particular, based on the views of St. Augustine.8 In this case, the specific term "reformation" is not required at all. However, it is widely recognized that the Reformation is not limited to the religious aspect alone.

6. Ignatenko A. The Split Ummah waiting for the Judgment Day (A new view from old positions) / / Otechestvennye zapiski. 2003. N 5. P. 30.

7. Ibid., pp. 35, 36.

8. The main ideas on which the leaders of the Reformation relied-justification by faith; the original sinfulness of each person associated with the fall of Adam; the predestination of salvation or denial of it, not related to personal qualities and actions of a person, but established before the beginning of time; the true church of the righteous - were formulated in the fifth century by St. Augustine. "The old Church was extremely strong, and this strength could only be overcome by the explosive power of an idea. A similar idea was the new affirmation of Augustine's idea of salvation" (MacCulloch, D. (2003) The Reformation. A History, p. 110. Penguin books). In one of his letters Luther wrote to a friend: "My theology, that is, the theology of St. Augustine... "(See: Chadwig O. The Reformation. Opposition of Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. Moscow: ZAO Publishing House Centropolygraf, 2011. p. 45).

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While older approaches tend to isolate the Reformation and describe it in purely religious terms, seeing its origin in the corruption of the Catholic Church and its spread in the appeal of Luther's teachings to the masses, recent research tends to look at the reformation in a broader context, emphasizing the importance of social factors in its perception and political factors in its dissemination..
If we analyze the reformation as a social and political phenomenon, there are clearly more opportunities for meaningful analogies. In this context, the point of view about the cyclical nature of reformations in Islam has become quite widespread. It is believed that this religion is characterized by periodic "purification", "return to basics", which, however, is conservative and does not become an ideology of active social changes.

Therefore, the historical role of the Christian Reformation and reformation movements in Wahhabi Islam is completely different. The Christian Reformation opens the way for the free development of society, creativity in all spheres of life, and the constant emergence of new things. Reform movements in the Muslim world, on the contrary, return society to a permanent model of Sharia law, "in circles of its own" 10.

A serious modification to this model is made by Ernst Gellner, who, while highlighting a high, essentially fundamentalist culture in Islam, and a grassroots, mass culture, recognizes the cyclical nature of the Islamic reformation for a certain stage of development of Islamic societies.

The functioning of Islam in a traditional society can be described as a continuous or constantly renewed Reformation, in each cycle of which the Puritan impulse of religious revival turns into an increase in the opposite forces.-

9. Gorsky, Ph.S. (2003) The Disciplinary Revolution. Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe, p. 17. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.

10. Furman D. E. Reform of Islam according to Mohamed Taha and Ahmed Al-Naim. Afterword to the book of A. A. An-Naim "On the way to the Islamic Reformation" / / Furman D. E. Izbrannoe. M.: Publishing House "Territory of the Future", 2011. p. 217.

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social movements and demands. Thus, in the past, reforms have always been cyclical.11
However, Gellner believes that in modern society, the conditions of the game have changed. These changes - the destruction of the autonomy of self-governing rural communities, urbanization, and the strengthening of a centralized state-have increased the appeal of the fundamentalist version of Islam to ordinary Muslims, who are increasingly becoming urbanites. It is in the tradition of "high" fundamentalist Islam and its triumph among the broad masses of the population that Gellner sees a" passport to the future " for Muslim communities.

Its main features-the recognition of the normative nature of sacred texts, puritanism, individualism, rule-conformity, a relatively small number of magical elements, intolerance to the disorderly common mystical and ritual practices-and all these are certainly among the qualities that can ease the labors and hardships of a long journey to a modern disciplined industrial society. High Islam seems to have been specially created to achieve this goal 12.

Olivier Roy's position on the Islamic Reformation is quite contradictory. On the one hand, he repeatedly draws parallels between modern trends in Islam and the religious schism of the Reformation era, seeing direct analogies with what Max Weber and Michael Walzer wrote about this period13. On the other hand, he treats the features of modern Islam rather in the logic of New Age religiosity.

What we mean by "new forms of religiosity" does not imply, though it does not exclude, a" reformation " of Islam in the sense analogous to the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century.-

11. Gellner E. Conditions of freedom. Civil Society and its Historical Rivals, Moscow: Moskovskaya shkola politicheskikh issledovaniy, 2004, pp. 30-31.

12. Ibid., p. 34.

13. Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. Moscow: Direct-media, 2011; Walzer, M. (1965) The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics. Harvard University Press. In my analysis of the Reformation, I will also refer repeatedly to these classical works.

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re-Islamization " does not entail a rethinking of basic religious dogmas.14
Roy believes that the same premises that lead to fundamentalism can lead to the Islamic Reformation, namely, a critical approach to dogma, the pursuit of ijtihad and the development of theological thought. He acknowledges that there are "many Islamic thinkers who advocate the revival of such critical approaches through the use of modern intellectual research tools such as history and linguistics, "but notes that" such thinkers do not meet the expectations of young 'born-again' Muslims. " 15 That is, he connects the reformation not with fundamentalist, Puritanical views, but with more liberal approaches.

Positions linking the reformation to liberal Islamic thought trends that seek to reconcile Islam with modern ideas about the effective structure of society are also not uncommon. The publication of the book "Towards the Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights and International Law" by A. A. Al-Naim, a Sudanese scholar and theologian, helped to associate the Reformation with such ideas. Al-Naim sees the task of his work in justifying a revolutionary approach to Islamic legislative reform, which would ensure the implementation of Sharia law in those forms that allow Muslims to enjoy the achievements of social progress, and at the same time would not go beyond the framework of Islamic law.

To solve this problem, the author suggests relying on the approaches developed by his teacher, Mahmoud Muhammad Taha, who identified "two levels or two stages of the holy message of Islam, one of which belongs to the early Meccan period, and the other to the later, Madinah period" 16. The Meccan verses were based on universal values, recognized the equality of men and women, and were based on religious values. the right to full freedom of choice in matters related to-

14. Roy, O. (2004) Globalized Islam: the Search for a New Ummah, p. 5. New York, Columbia University Press.

15. Ibid, p. 182.

16. An-Naim A. A. On the way to the Islamic Reformation (civil liberties, human rights and international law), Moscow: Andrei Sakharov Museum and Public Center, 1999, p. 65.

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the Sah of religion and faith, while the Madinah verses allowed for the use of force in spreading Islam and fighting the infidels. An-Naim, following his teacher, argues that the Meccan verses have a more fundamental meaning, were given for the future and should be used in modern Sharia law enforcement.

Despite the diversity of their positions regarding the Islamic Reformation, they are united by the fact that practically in no case was the question raised about what is the reformation, freed from its concrete historical character, the reformation as a phenomenon that can be considered in different historical contexts. Actually, going beyond superficial analogies and carrying out a meaningful analysis is possible only if such a content of this process can be isolated from its concrete historical "shell". In addition, most of those who try to extend the term "reformation" beyond a specific phenomenon within the Christian world are characterized either by a rather superficial knowledge of this period itself, or by shallow ideas about the essence of Islam and the processes taking place in it, which also inevitably leads to distortions. Therefore, before discussing the Islamic Reformation further, we will try to understand how the reformation can be defined as a social phenomenon that is not limited to a specific historical period.

Social content of the Reformation

The religious reformation can be characterized as a movement of large masses of people who, under the influence of re-interpreted and understood religious imperatives, abandon their usual way of life and implement new models of behavior in society in accordance with their religious ideals. Within the framework of the Christian Reformation, a number of factors contributed to the emergence of such a mass movement.

First, the Reformation brought the Holy Scriptures closer to ordinary believers. Luther echoed Erasmus ' call that the Holy Scriptures should be read by the ploughman between work or by the weaver to the sound of his loom.17. This is on-

17. Chadvig O. Reformation. The confrontation between Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. p. 56.

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This followed from its ideology, the key ideas of which were: the impossibility of the church's mediation between God and people, the absence of any influence on the prospects of salvation, and the key role of Holy Scripture in solving all questions of faith and existence. On this basis, Protestantism has made reading and thinking about the Bible a mandatory religious requirement and has created a cult that focuses on the pastor's explanation of the Bible.18
This fundamentally distinguished the Reformation from Orthodox Catholicism, where it was absolutely not assumed that parishioners independently study sacred texts. Moreover, it was forbidden to keep sacred books at home, for this a believer could be persecuted by the inquisition.19 The service was conducted in Latin and was perceived by parishioners more as a magical ritual than as a conscious action.

The Reformation made sacred texts and rituals as accessible as possible to the laity. The Holy Scriptures were translated into the native languages of the faithful. The "fathers of the Reformation" themselves made a significant contribution to this - Luther translated the Bible into German, Calvin-into French. The service was conducted in national languages, and the sermon played an incomparably more important role in it. So that people could read the holy books themselves, the reformers took care to increase the literacy of the population, as well as train qualified priests who could explain the main ideas of Scripture to the flock. The invention of printing also made it easier to solve this problem, the Bible was published in huge circulations at that time.

Secondly, when ordinary believers began to read independently, they also began to interpret the Holy Scriptures independently for the first time. Luther's opponents complained "that the Bible pleases ordinary people, that shoemakers and elderly women read it."

18. Furman D. E. Ideology of the Reformation and its role in the formation of bourgeois social consciousness // Favorites. p. 104.

19.In England, poor people were burned at the stake as heretics for having a Bible translated into English (the so-called Wycliffe Bible).

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her and argue about her lyrics"20. There were obvious risks involved. "The Bible in a living language is becoming a source of heresy everywhere." 21 The possibility of interpretation immediately gave rise to disagreements related both to the individual characteristics of believers, and to their social status, requests and interests. The Reformation broke up into many different groups and movements, clashing and conflicting with each other. These groups were indeed very different - some perceived religion purely rationally, others hoped for insight from above; some wanted to withdraw and withdraw from the world, others, on the contrary, sought to change this world in accordance with their ideals; some focused on peaceful transformations in collaboration with those in power, some provoked and supported defiance and rebellion.

This fragmentation of reformist thought is usually seen as a weakness.

The authority of the papacy was shaken; the breach made in Catholicism was considerable. But in the camp of the attackers themselves, a split is taking place - numerous sects that have grown up on the basis of a religious revolution are creating discord between them, dividing their forces, undermining their trust at a time when, having recovered from the first defeats, the Catholic Church is beginning to gather its forces for a new, more fierce struggle.22
However, taking into account the above, it seems that this was not a flaw, but an immanent feature of the Reformation. If the Reformation had turned out to be monolithic, it would simply have led to the replacement of one system of dogma by another with a similar system, that is, we would have seen a church schism. However, the Sy Reformation-

20. Chadvig O. Reformation. The confrontation between Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. p. 74.

21. Furman D. E. The ideology of the Reformation and its role in the formation of bourgeois social consciousness. p. 55. Luther himself, who initially proclaimed the principle of religious freedom, was later horrified by the consequences of this step. "I would leave the vast majority of incorrigible sinners under the Pope's yoke. After all, the teaching of the Gospel does not benefit them, but only leads to the abuse of freedom, " such words are attributed to him at the end of his life (see: Porozovskaya B. D. Martin Luther. His life and reform activities // John Huss and Martin Luther. Jean Calvin. Torquemada. Loyola: Biographical Sketches, Moscow: Respublika Publ., 1995, p. 161).

22. Porozovskaya B. D. Zhan Kalvin. His life and reform activity. p. 171.

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grala played a different role. Independent reading and interpretation of sacred texts by ordinary people has transformed religion from a set of dogmas that are detached from people and cannot be evaluated, to a way of understanding the world in religious categories. At the same time, due to its diversity, the Reformation was able to respond in one way or another to the interests and needs of various social groups - poor peasants and noble knights, rich aristocrats and poor priests, protest intellectuals and ruling princes - and thereby created a broad social base for itself.

Third, the Reformation reflected the mass need for a new understanding and formation of a new attitude to the surrounding reality. "Luther revealed to the world what it wanted to hear from him." 23 This need was generated by the active processes of social change in the period of early modernization. What was previously perceived as stable and unshakable, now changed before our eyes. The boundaries of the inhabited world were rapidly expanding as a result of geographical discoveries, creating fundamentally new prospects and risks: from the possibility of mass migration to the American continent to inflationary processes generated by the flow of precious metals from newly discovered lands to Europe. The usual social stratifications broke down: the old aristocracy in some places lost its position in favor of the state and previously unknown, quickly rich families. Previously despised classes suddenly turned out to be the most promising. During this period, the intensive processes of urbanization overcame the previous isolation of urban and rural communities, opened them up to each other, and thereby forced them to rethink their role and place. An additional sense of uncertainty and instability was brought by periodic epidemics, the most terrible of which - the plague - regularly devastated vast territories. All this disoriented people, knocked them out of their usual rut, created a sense of chaos and forced them to look for at least some point of support. "The world around us was changing, causing confusion and disorientation." 24
23. Chadvig O. Reformation. The confrontation between Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. p. 50.

24. Armstrong K. Battle for God: The History of Fundamentalism, Moscow: Alpina Non-fiction, 2013, p. 90.

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Under the changed conditions, someone had to provide an answer to new problems. And the reformers did offer their own interpretations and recipes.

Calvin's theology reflected a new social reality and offered a general explanation: what, other than disorder, can result from the activities of fallen man-restless, lustful, and unwilling to submit?25

Hence the recommendations:

Only divine directives, only the constant struggle of his saints, can establish even a minimal order on earth.26
Thus, the Reformation created a demand for a massive transformation of generally accepted practices in response to the ongoing social changes and the requirements for a true believer arising from religious dogmas. The reformation of the church was followed by the"reformation of life."

Monarchs, priests, nuns, merchants, farmers, and workers were caught up in ideas that, rejecting their experiences and memories, made them behave differently, sometimes wonderfully, sometimes monstrously.27
It was believed that if a person does not strive to fulfill the precepts of the Almighty, this is a sign that he is not chosen for salvation and is not part of the "true church".

For Calvin and his followers, identifying a true believer is a gradual process in which the old Adam dies and a new Adam is born. This process of transformation or rebirth is marked by an increasing conformity of the believer's actions to biblical law, i.e., an increasing degree of self-discipline.28
25. Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, p. 204.

26. Ibid, p. 161.

27. MacCulloch, D. The Reformation. A History, p. 110.

28. Gorsky, Ph.S. The Disciplinary Revolution. Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe, p. 124.

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And this process is fundamentally different from external control of behavior patterns by the authorities.

Social discipline gets a new content when it is consciously implemented instead of being imposed from the outside on a free consciousness or modified by the influence of nature, blood, or patriarchy with all their emotional connotations.29
But the "saints", feeling that they were the vanguard of the divine army, which was called by the Almighty to protect the faith, insisted on universal adherence to the norms arising from religious obligations. The self-discipline of the righteous was complemented by the universal forcible imposition of discipline by the secular authorities.30 "If those who are not pleasing to God cannot be saved... they can at least be forced to obey the laws of the Most High." 31
Moreover ,the "laws of the Most High" were interpreted as close as possible to what is contained in the texts of Holy Scripture. While Luther emphasized the unconditional fulfillment of secular laws, Calvin is more scrupulous about the direct moral precepts contained in the Bible, and, moreover, "looks for" everything in the Scriptures,

29. Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, P. 57.

30. In Calvin's Geneva, a person was severely punished for the slightest offense, for the slightest deviation from the order that, according to Calvinists, follows from the divine laws. "Rich and poor, men and women, had to be brought before a formidable tribunal at the first request, and for the slightest, unintentionally broken free word, for smiling inappropriately during a sermon, for wearing too smart a suit, for curling their hair, they listened to angry reprimands, were exposed to the pillory, were subjected to church excommunication, fines, and imprisonment. ... A coachman who angrily cursed his stubborn horse was imprisoned" (Porozovskaya B. D. Jean Calvin. His life and reform activity, p. 231). Harsher punishments, such as the death penalty, were also widely used. In 5 years, 58 death sentences and 76 expulsion decrees were approved in Geneva (See: Ibid., p. 230). The situation was absurd. "In 1547, the decree of 1535 against the wearing of trousers with slits, as sowing disorder, was confirmed by a special order" (Chadwig O. Reformation. The confrontation between Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. p. 87).

31. Gorsky, Ph.S. The Disciplinary Revolution. Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe, p. 21.

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which can be understood as a specific rule of behavior. Calvin's followers tried to present all the moral legislation of the Old Testament as binding and sacred law32.

In Calvin's Geneva, for example, the death penalty was applied for a variety of crimes "entirely in the spirit of the Old Testament."33
And here we come to the fundamental paradox of the Reformation. The prerequisites for social progress, the development of the free market, the emancipation of the human person, and the triumph of liberalism were laid down by religious fanatics who sought to return to the past, completely subordinate human life to religious precepts, and forcibly impose their views, insisting on the hopeless depravity of human nature and the impossibility of achieving salvation by their own efforts.

The origins of bourgeois ideological development are not liberal humanists, but the frenzied monk Luther, who fought against carnal temptations, and Calvin, who burned "witches" and "heretics" at the stake without a twinge of conscience. ... The paradox of the liberating and progressive influence of an ideology that calls back and asserts the powerlessness of man is a real paradox 34.

Explaining this paradox is one of the main challenges for any Reformation researcher. Here it is important to note the following features of this social process.

On the one hand, the Reformation seriously undermined the traditional attitudes inherited from the past, within the framework of which life was built before the beginning of this religious movement. That is, so to speak, clearing the space for the formation of a new reality. In fact, the Reformation was opposed to the fundamental principle of traditional patriarchal relations, in which all social structures - the community, the state-grow-

32. Furman D. E. Ideology of the Reformation and its role in the formation of bourgeois social consciousness. p. 89.

33. Porozovskaya B. D. Zhan Kalvin. His life and reform activity. p. 230.

34. Furman D. E. Ideology of the reformation and its role in the formation of bourgeois social consciousness. pp. 42-43.

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they leave the family and clan and reproduce (at least at the ideological level) their social ties.

Thus, the Reformation opposed hierarchy as the fundamental principle of building all social relations. The hierarchy of the church and the feudal hierarchy of statuses were traditionally interpreted as a reflection of the harmony of the natural structure of the universe. In the view of Protestants, the structure of the Universe looks completely different - there is no natural hierarchy, all phenomena and forms are directly the result of the divine will. "A stone cannot fall from a mountain without the will of God, just as the sun rises only by the will of God." 35 Submission to the divine will is a direct duty of man. The obligation to submit to the authorities is also preached by many branches of Protestantism, but gradually radical supporters of this trend come to the conclusion that submission is necessary only to the extent that the authorities do not violate the divine will.

In addition, the Reformation sought to destroy the natural, primordial ties that people in traditional society were guided by, in favor of the primacy of ideological unity. Family, friends, ancestral land - all this a true believer should be prepared to leave on the path of his faith. The substitute is a community of like-minded people who are bound by a common ideology and a common desire to fight for the triumph of the word of God. The chosen ones "should not be blinded by the tinsel of their fathers, times, or traditions, but will measure religious truth directly by the word of God." 36
On the other hand, the Reformation contributed to the formation of a new system of values of a modernizing nature, and its similar influence was manifested both directly and indirectly in several directions:

1. certain aspects of it directly contributed to the promotion of modernization values;

2. the phenomenon that Weber drew attention to was revealed - " the cultural influences of the Reformation in a significant part... there were unforeseen and even undesirable consequences for the reformers themselves.-

35. Ibid., p. 64.

36. Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, p. 187.

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often very far removed from what passed before their mind's eye, or even directly opposite to their true intentions. " 37;

3. religious pluralism itself, which developed under the influence of the Reformation, dictated its own norms, which one way or another, sooner or later, had to be followed.

The importance of education and conscientious work are the most obvious modernization elements of the Reformation ideology. Thus, Luther called for the creation of public schools for all classes of society, as well as public libraries, and considered this one of the most important duties of Christian authorities. Many Calvinists also sought to promote reform programs related to popular education. As for the attitude to work, in the framework of the Reformation, it was determined by the fact that the reformers actually sacralized any human activity, considering it as a service, a vocation. Protestants deny the superiority of the church's ascetic duty over worldly duties; on the contrary, "the fulfillment of duty within the framework of a worldly profession is considered as the highest task of a person's moral life."38 Success in professional activities was considered confirmation of the believer's chosen path to salvation.

At the same time, in the Reformation, one can also find the germs of those features that are characteristic of the "dark side of modernity" - repression, terror, subordination of the individual to the depersonalized power of the state, strict regulation by the community of the life of its members. The ecclesiastical police control over the life of the faithful, as it was exercised in the sphere of domination of the Calvinist state churches, not only, as Weber believed, hindered and even hindered the release of individual forces, but also left its visible imprint on the system of relations of modern society.

What has been described above as the "unintended consequences" of religious reforms requires special analysis. To begin with, the Reformation, in its idea of universal sinfulness, negatively affirmed the universal equality of people. "Since the nature of all is equally damaged, all have a negative impact on the human body.-

37. Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. p. 69.

38. Ibid., p. 49.

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they are equal in their sinfulness to one another. " 39 This was evident not only in ideology, but also in everyday practice. The wife of one of the leaders of the Huguenot aristocrats indignantly described how, after not being allowed to take communion because of her hairstyle, she watched in a rage as her servants were allowed to take communion.40
The more difficult question is: did the Reformation really foster individualism? One cannot but agree that "discipline, not freedom, is at the heart of Puritanism." 41 Nevertheless, the Reformation clearly reinforced individualism in several ways.

First, the very rejection of traditional frameworks and hierarchies is an act of emancipation.

The formation of ascetic communities and sects, with their radical rejection of patriarchal fetters, with their interpretation of the commandment to obey God more than people, was one of the most important prerequisites for modern "individualism" .42
Secondly, within the Reformation, salvation is an individual act that is not mediated by any intermediate instances, which obviously strengthens the role of the individual as a subject who determines his own life circumstances (if not in order to achieve salvation by his own efforts, then at least in order to prove to himself that he is chosen).

Third, the possibility of independent reading and interpretation of the Bible dramatically expands the role of individual judgment in understanding the world around us - the unprecedented exaltation of Scripture leads to the liberation of the individual from the domination of the authority of the church and church dogma over him.... there is no authority in determining its meaning, and the human mind is absolutely free.43
39. Furman D. E. Ideology of the Reformation and its role in the formation of bourgeois social consciousness. p. 67.

40. См.: Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, p. 50.

41. Ibid, p. 149.

42. Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. p. 174.

43. Furman D. E. Ideology of the reformation and its role in the formation of bourgeois social consciousness. pp. 70, 72.

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Fourth, the very act of choosing one's own religious worldview independently in an era of schism and anarchy is a deeply individualistic act.

It is quite common that the Calvinist structure of the community taught believers the mechanisms of citizenship, democracy, and self-government. Moreover, the approval of a new understanding of the citizen was directly related to the denial of previous ideas about the political passivity of people.

However, the work of Calvinist saints required recognition that all subjects are active and knowledgeable citizens, not politically naive children, that the government is not a household, that the state is not an extended family, and that the king is not a loving father.44
At the same time, the demand for obedience, even in small details, to religious law fostered the values of law-abiding as a universal good.

The question of the consequences of the Reformation in the sphere of family and gender relations is interesting. "Puritan writers insisted on the subordinate position of women, but nevertheless saw her as a potential saint." 45 Marriage between two saints was seen as a spiritual union. The contradictory understanding of the role of women, in fact, was reflected in the concept of the family as a whole. The Puritan model of family from the point of view of the modernization approach cannot be unambiguously evaluated - it departs from the traditional patriarchal ideal, but at the same time does not correspond to modern ideas about gender roles and the rights of family members. The family is seen as a church unit, a "small church", where the father has absolute power, and the children are reduced to the position of servants. Strict methods of education are used, designed to prevent the consequences of "original sin" from manifesting even in children. Natural feelings, love and tenderness, are suppressed in every possible way. And yet, the family is increasingly becoming a voluntary union of two individuals connected by a civil contract. They are simplified

44. Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, p. 14.

45. Ibid, p. 193.

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the terms of divorce, which was extremely difficult in Catholic countries.

Finally, the situation of religious pluralism has significantly affected the situation in the sphere of religious tolerance. Lutheranism's original idea of freedom of conscience quickly faded away. In the struggle between Catholics and reformers in Germany, the principle was developed: "whose power, that and faith" - subjects had to share the faith of their overlord. It was believed that without a single state religion, the state could not exist. The struggle against heretics in Protestantism was no less brutal than in Catholicism - both there and there were burning bonfires. However, this principle has not been implemented in all countries, even as a result of numerous conflicts, religious wars and clashes. It was necessary to understand what to do in such situations. The idea that peace with two religions is better than war that doesn't solve anything has become increasingly popular. The Edict of Nantes (1598) in France was the first document to establish the principle of religious tolerance at the state level, and (although it was repealed under Louis XIV) played a major role in establishing the principle of freedom of conscience.

The final step towards religious freedom has been taken in the Americas. The country, in the creation of which religion played a key role, became the first secular republic. "Congress will make no laws relating to the establishment of any religion or prohibiting the free exercise of that religion," 46 this was the wording included in the Bill of Rights of 1789. In this case, it was also largely a forced step - the founding fathers understood that "if the federal government gives the status of a state religion to any of the Protestant denominations,the constitution will not be approved" 47.

However, all these diverse and largely positive consequences of the Reformation from the point of view of modernity were revealed only after a significant time period. Many contemporaries saw something completely different - fanaticism, mass violence, chaos, desecration of shrines and a barbaric attitude towards people-

46.Cit. By: Armstrong K. The Battle for God: A History of Fundamentalism. p. 112.

47. Ibid., p. 113.

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Thomas Hobbes generally wrote that it might have been better to destroy all Protestant preachers before they began to spread their ideas to the masses, and as a result avoid the horrors and losses of the English Civil War.49 It was only at a much later time that an idealized image of the Reformation emerged as a process that contributed to the modernization of society. It is this image that often appears before the eyes of scholars who talk about the Islamic Reformation.

The Islamic Reformation: what does the concept framework provide?

The suggestion that modern fundamentalist Islamic movements should be viewed through the lens of the Reformation is not made with the aim of drawing a beautiful analogy. This conceptual framework can help us find answers to crucial questions of modern analysis of the Islamic world.

1. What is the reason for the wide spread and demand for Islamic fundamentalism?

2. What functional role do these currents play?

3. What are the consequences of this ideology? Can Islamic fundamentalism help modernize the societies where it is spreading , as it did with the Reformation in Europe?

As for the first question, we remember that the request for religious reformation in Europe arose in an era of global changes - in the new conditions, people were not satisfied with the usual answers to the basic questions of life. "The old values inherited from the past came into conflict with the material and intellectual aspirations of the present."50 The Reformation gave people the opportunity to independently search for answers and offered new directions of search. The Islamic world also

48. "The crowd, heated by iconoclastic sermons, broke into churches, stopped Catholic worship, and violated the holy places" (B. D. Porozovskaya, Martin Luther. His life and reform activity, p. 120)."..Protestant causes were identified with the looting of churches, destruction, disrespect, religious anarchy... "(Chadwig O. The Reformation. The confrontation between Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. p. 133).

49. См.: Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, p. 114.

50. Chadvig O. Reformation. The confrontation between Catholics and Protestants in Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. p. 15.

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it is undergoing profound transformation processes. The accelerated modernization carried out by many secular regimes in Islamic countries has seriously shaken the traditional system of relations, caused sharp social shifts, and intensified urbanization. Globalization and active migration processes have significantly changed the living conditions of large masses of people. Can the ideology of Islamic fundamentalism in these conditions satisfy the demands that arise among Muslims as a reaction to the dismantling of the usual institutions?

Many researchers in various countries of the world have tried to answer this question.51 I will try to do this on the basis of research conducted in the North Caucasus 52. At first glance, it may seem that this region, which is the periphery of the Islamic world, cannot be an adequate object of analysis. However, we emphasize once again that the subject of study in this case is not the religious, but the social aspects of the reformation. And from this point of view, the situation in the North Caucasus is quite indicative. The population is experiencing the same processes and problems as in many other Muslim-populated areas: the legacy of traditional society and its disintegration, urbanization and globalization, the consequences of the collapse of official ideology and military conflicts. So, if we consider the example of the most islamized of the North Caucasian republics - Dagestan - it becomes obvious that in the 1990s this territory experienced a radical breakdown of the previous model of development, which was determined by:

* The collapse of the socialist economic model, the consequences of which were reinforced by the breakdown of economic ties during the Chechen War;

51. One of the most interesting works is Roy, O. Globalized Islam: the Search for a New Ummah.

52. I am referring to the results of a five-year study conducted in the North Caucasus republics with a predominantly Islamic population. The subject of the study was the background, course and consequences of Islamic radicalization, and the nature of intra-Islamic conflicts. The study was conducted using qualitative sociological methods in the main cities and about 25 villages of Dagestan, Chechnya, Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkar and Karachay-Cherkess republics, including about 100 individual and group interviews with Islamic fundamentalists themselves. Italics in the text contain quotes from interviews conducted in the course of this study, as well as from statements made by representatives of this field in social networks.

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* active migration processes: departure to other regions of the educated population from Dagestan cities, mass migration of mountaineers to the plain, first of all, again to the cities;

* involving rural communities in market relations that undermine their self-isolation;

* globalization of both "Western" and "Islamic"countries;

* The war in Chechnya, the neighboring republic of Dagestan.

In one way or another, similar processes were characteristic of almost all the North Caucasian republics.

Young people entering life during this period faced numerous problems and difficulties. Moreover, these difficulties were not just economic in nature. The destruction of the norms and rules of both urban and rural culture caused by mass migrations53 left a normative vacuum, called in science, after Emil Durkheim, anomie (lawlessness). The costs of interaction between people in the absence of generally accepted norms were extremely high. In the absence of "rules of the game" , the dominant role was played by "the right of the strong". Moreover, in such a situation, young people for the most part could not rely on the experience of their ancestors and use their life models to achieve success - this experience was formed in other conditions and devalued in an environment of social breakdown. Generational hierarchies instead of positive ones began to play a negative role - they hindered active adaptation, the search for the younger generation's own values and meanings, behavioral patterns and interaction with the surrounding world.54
What kind of requests were formed among young people in such an environment? Based on the conducted field studies, they can be formulated as follows.

53. This culture itself was formed as a result of the influence of the Soviet government on the traditional way of life of the North Caucasian peoples. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that, firstly, such an impact was heterogeneous - in some places it significantly transformed the existing social relations, in others it affected them purely formally; and, secondly, the Soviet modernization itself was conservative, that is, in many respects it did not destroy, but preserved the characteristic features of traditional modernization. These are the rules and restrictions.

54. Despite the abundance of works on Islamic issues in the North Caucasus, the analysis of the social consequences of the post-Soviet transformation is rather poorly presented. As a successful example, one can cite the works of Enver Kisriev, in particular: Kisriev E. Islam and power in Dagestan. Moscow: OGI, 2004.

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1. A request for a rigid system of rules and norms that allows you to somehow organize the regulatory chaos (anomie) surrounding it.

2. A request for a community of like-minded people that could compensate for the weakening of the role of generational and tribal hierarchies, as well as in the conditions of the "right of the strong" to provide protection to its members.

3. A request to legitimize intergenerational conflict, to expand the space of independent search for values and meanings.

4. A request for social protest, for an alternative to the lack of order and justice that was observed in the surrounding life.

Islamic fundamentalism is competitive in the market of ideologies in the complex satisfaction of these requests. It provides a strict normality and regulation of the life of the believer, giving him a foothold in an environment of chaos, as well as inclusion in the community of like-minded people who share the same "rules of the game". It expands the possibilities of independent study of sacred texts and choosing teachers for yourself. It legitimizes inter-generational conflict to a certain extent, because "if we take the father's word and the word of the Almighty, then it is higher than the word of the Almighty" (man, young age, public figure, Dagestan, Makhachkala). Finally, it acts as a protest ideology, contrasting the existing state of society with an alternative social ideal - an Islamic caliphate, which, according to its adherents, can ensure order and justice.

None of the other ideologies present in the "market" can satisfy these demands as successfully. Traditional Islam 55 is unlikely to provide legitimation of international relations.-

55.The term "traditional Islam" is not recognized by all Islamic scholars, but it is widely used as an antithesis to fundamentalist movements, which have also been called "non-traditional Islam". However, it is not easy to clearly define its content, and the concept of "traditional Islam" is rather vague. In different regions and among different peoples, traditions in this regard differ. For example, a part of the population of the North Caucasus belongs to the Hanafi madhhab, and a part belongs to the Shafi'i madhhab, and these madhhabs (interpretations or legal schools in Islam) have certain peculiarities both in the legal interpretation of Islam and in the ritual part. Sufism is a mystical trend in Islam that implies unquestioning obedience to the spiritual leader (sheikh), and there may also be contradictions between different sheikhs. In addition, traditional Islam can be

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generational conflict (this is the religion of the fathers) and social protest (to the extent that it coincides with the official Islam supported by the state). Nationalism (in the case of the North Caucasus - ethnic mobilization) may well act as a protest ideology, but in many cases it does not provide special normativity (although some ethnic groups have their own ethnic codes of conduct) and does not legitimize intergenerational conflict. Liberalism in general is often seen not as a "cure", but as a "source of disease" - the emergence of chaos and injustice.

Putting forward anomie as a reason for the popularity of fundamentalist Islam differs from the widely held view that these reasons are related to the sense of disadvantage of Muslims due to their loss of global leadership and inability to be competitive in comparison with Western countries.56 Without denying the role of such global processes, we note that they are perceived much more acutely when a person sees their reflection in their personal destiny. Thus, the slogans of oppression of Muslims around the world and the need to take revenge for this fall on quite favorable ground, if the audience feels alienation, blocked social elevators and discrimination.

It should be interpreted as "popular Islam", i.e. a belief system that has been heavily influenced by non-Islamic customs and traditions, which is unacceptable for those who have received a good Islamic education. It is also practiced to identify traditional Islam with official Islam, represented by the spiritual administration in the relevant territory, although in different regions the spiritual administrations may represent different Islamic interpretations" (Kazenin K., Starodubrovskaya I. North Caucasus: quo vadis? Expert report [http://polit.ru/article/2014/01/14/caucasus/, accessed from 30.08.2017]). However, all interpretations are united by the fact that traditional Islam refers to those ideas about the" correct " Islamic religion that prevailed in the relevant territory before the beginning of the Islamic renaissance, and in modern conditions were somehow supported by the authority of the state.

56. This position is shared, for example, by Daniel Pipes, who previously linked the rise of Islamic fundamentalism to the oil boom, but then changed his view. "Basically, I am no longer trying to explain the rise of militant Islam as a single cause... The Muslim world feels that something went wrong, and attempts to correct the situation are untenable " (Pipes, D. In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power. Preface to the Transaction Edition, p. x). The position presented in this article is much closer to that of Olivier Roy, who explains the spread of neo-fundamentalism by deculturation, intergenerational gap, and social protest.

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The analogies with the Reformation in the spread of Islamic fundamentalism are striking. In Dagestan, for example, Sufism is the traditional, official Islam. It assumes complete submission to the authority of the Sheikh and does not welcome independent study of sacred texts.57
For us, there was only one Sufism, we were all brought up on the traditions of Sufism. So we didn't ask too many questions... There was complete unanimity (male, older, public figure, Makhachkala).

Young people actively oppose this approach.

We read. That is, I read the same translation of the Qur'an, I read the same hadiths. Yes, in the beginning, there was a stupid following in my childhood: the imam said-so do it... They said, Sufis-like don't read the translation. But, in turn, the book is sent down to people... Read, but do not interpret, if you want - there are interpretations in turn. We have to study it, we are not stupid sheep - well, I went there on this trail and we are going ...(husband, young age, student, Makhachkala).

Independent reading of primary sources contributes to the formation of one's own opinion about how the holy books explain life and what they require from the believer. People understand the limits of independence in the interpretation of the Qur'an and Sunnah differently. The moderate option is a reasoned choice from the positions of various scientists.

When I say it's wrong, I didn't find out for myself. I also follow some scientists who have researched this issue and come up with this opinion. I was satisfied with this research, and I accepted this position (husband, middle age, imam, KCR, plain village).

We appeal to those who know who studied... And we do not stop at one instance. We asked one here..., went to another knowledgeable person who studied, and asked him. And then we

57. In cases where official Islam is not associated with Sufism, the same problem arises of unconditional submission to the authority of the imam. "What an effendi does, then, must be done... all" (male, senior, imam, KCR, plain village).

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from this totality, we make sure that it will be better just judging by our region. ... We look at what is allowed and what is clearly forbidden... And if all three of them say that it is forbidden, then we postpone it. But if this one says-it is possible, this one says-it is impossible, this one says-it is possible and impossible, just what is the situation, we take in the position in which we are, and do what is best to do. That is, in our locality, in our everyday life, we know better. ... How it will be better for society, and so that it does not contradict the canons of Sharia (male, middle age, works in the North, KCR, plain village).

However, there is a more radical approach that recognizes the right of each person to independently search for the truth.

Every Muslim should seek the truth. ... There is a Prophet, so let him be my sheikh. And the rest are ordinary people (husband, young age, worker, Dagestan, mountain village).

Naturally, such a variety of interpretations causes serious fragmentation of Islamic thought. To a certain extent, we can agree with the widespread opinion that this fragmentation is largely due to the lack of deep knowledge of Islam among its adherents. This is about the same thing that Luther feared during the German peasant war, when Reformation slogans were used to justify the peasants ' struggle for their rights. 58 However, on the other hand, it means that people began not only to follow dogmas, but also to understand the world in religious terms, taking into account their position and interests, character traits. And this reflection led them to different results.

Therefore, among fundamentalists, you can find followers of a wide variety of views - apolitical people who want to isolate themselves from society and live in a narrow circle of like-minded people, strictly observing Islamic norms; supporters of a peaceful Islamic appeal (preaching, attracting new people).

58. During the peasant war in Germany, the peasants, under the banner of the Gospel, "demanded the abolition of serfdom, the reduction of tithes and other feudal duties, the free use of hunting, fishing and forest plots, the return of public pastures, and in the foreground the right to choose their pastors and evangelical preaching" (B. D. Porozovskaya Martin Luther. His life and reform activity, p. 127).

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adherents); advocates of active political actions, the struggle for the rights of Muslims; and finally, supporters of the armed struggle for the establishment of an Islamic caliphate. Globalization, which provides access to the world of Islamic thought, and the diversity of religious movements and groups give believers the opportunity to join the followers of those views that most reflect their life orientations and ambitions, whatever they may consist of.

Here a person is no longer looking for, for example, a strong justification from the point of view of Sharia, any justification is enough for him. Not the scientist whom he has always trusted in principle, but the one who will explain to him that this is allowed (husband, young age, public figure, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

The abstract possibility of independent religious choice does not mean that this phenomenon has become universal. People may still maintain kinship or rural solidarity in such matters, or they may not reflexively follow their friends or a charismatic leader.59 Nevertheless, such an opportunity fundamentally changes the "religious landscape", individualizes religious views, forces us to take into account the presence of" competitors " in the Islamic field and develop strategies for coexistence and combating them.

59. Scott Atran, who studies ways to join armed jihad, argues that jihad is not chosen as a carefully considered solution in most cases, and cites a study in Saudi Arabia, according to which 64% of people join terrorists through friends and 24% through family (see Atran, p. 4). Talking to the enemy. Religious extremism, sacred values and what it means to be a person. Moscow: Career Press, 2016. pp. 68, 383). It should be noted that during the Reformation, such ways of involving people in the Protestant movement were also actively used. Thus, Andrew Philips notes that the Huguenots in organizing their struggle against Catholics in France relied on various methods of mobilization. "Huguenot denominational networks combined the strength and resilience of emotional bonds growing out of aristocratic kinship and patron-client relationships with the managerial and controlling capabilities of a rationally organized church bureaucracy to create highly effective forms of rebel organization" (Phillips, A. (2005) " The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Jihadism - Transnational Religious Insurgencies and the Transformation of International Orders", Review of International Studies 36 (2): 265). Based on field studies conducted in the North Caucasus, it can be concluded that there are quite a lot of options for radicalization, and among them one can distinguish both those related to group solidarity and those based on individual decisions.

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Let's move on to the most important question for us-what qualities does this ideology bring up in its followers? I must say that there is no universal answer to this question. In various directions of Islamic fundamentalism, modernization and anti-modernization features can manifest themselves in a variety of combinations, modernization elements can be generated both directly and indirectly, as unforeseen results of the implementation of certain religious norms in practice.

Let us first consider the obvious modernization implications of Islamic fundamentalism. A number of researchers, drawing direct analogies with the analysis of Max Weber, argue that Islamic fundamentalism fosters a new type of entrepreneur-the bearer of "Protestant ethics".

One can observe the emergence of a middle class of Islamic Puritans with a Weberian work ethic, conservative in matters of faith, but modern in terms of business.60
Studies in the North Caucasus do not fully support this thesis. Rather, we can say that there are values of conscientious work and the desire for vertical mobility, but, unlike the Protestant Reformation, work is not considered as a human obligation associated with the fulfillment of his religious duty.

At the same time, there is a positive influence of Islam on the values of education, which, apparently, is less obvious for researchers in other regions of the Islamic world. Among some Caucasian fundamentalists, the following position is common in relation to secular knowledge::

The Messenger of Allah said: "Seek knowledge even if it is in China. Since acquiring knowledge is a fard [duty] for every Muslim. And the angels spread their wings under the feet of the seeker of knowledge." During the heyday of Islam, many exact sciences and medicine also developed rapidly (husband, middle age, businessman, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

60. Roy, O. Globalized Islam: the Search for a New Ummah, p. 97.

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Moreover, the emphasis on knowledge sounds much stronger than in the framework of traditional Islam, where, at least in a number of communities, he preached the restriction of secular education.

We have such a generation grown up. When traditional Islam was under the Communists, we had a religious village, and they said, " You can't go to school, let's say. Our people who are elders. It was impossible to study there, in the city, somewhere, according to Islam it is forbidden. And we believed, and we followed in their footsteps. Now, more or less, when you have started, you are already beginning to study Islam yourself, it is quite different there. You really need to learn there, the most expensive thing is knowledge (husband, middle age, businessman, Dagestan, foothill village).

Moreover, Muslims, especially in Dagestan, strive not only to postulate theoretically, but also to promote the practical realization of this value. Some Islamized Makhachkala diasporas implement projects to support secular school education in their native villages. In Makhachkala itself, as well as in a number of villages, representatives of fundamentalist Islam are opening educational institutions that combine religious education with deep secular knowledge, using the most advanced educational technologies. We can give an example of a children's educational center organized by Muslims in Makhachkala:

What was included in it? It included Arabic and English from the age of three. Arabic on the course Bayna Yadayk, Arabic between the hands..., there was an Egyptian program for kindergartens and here on it..., the Oxford course is also like this from the age of three..., on this. And it was from three to six years, preschool and preparation for school (husband, middle age, businessman, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

Modernization influence is also associated with the focus on modern cultural forms of communication and interaction of people, which is especially important in the context of anomie, which destroys generally accepted norms and creates a request for adaptation of people from villages to an unusual urban environment.

Here in the village, if you suddenly do something bad, any senior can give you a blow on the head. It is ok. It doesn't matter what-

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nickname or not. When you arrive in the city, no one gives you a blow on the head. They didn't teach you why you shouldn't hurt a girl, for example. They didn't explain why you can't hurt the girl, but just gave her a blow on the head. And here you can see that no one gives you a blow on the head. So, you can offend a girl (husband, young age, businessman, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

Under these conditions, Islamic fundamentalists perceive themselves as carriers of civilizational standards, as opposed to secular youth, who are considered carriers of lack of culture and bad habits.

What is modern society today? I'll outline the person's status... A person does not smoke - good. A person does not drink-fine. A person is engaged in sports - in general, a plus. A person does not walk-good. A person works well . A person does not steal - good. But he prays-ah, Wahhabi! (husband, middle-aged, works in the North, KCR, plain village).

Stories about how Muslims, being carriers of higher ethical standards, demonstrate this to non-Muslims, asserting the superiority of Islam, are one of the most common interview subjects in the Islamic environment.

In Moscow, for example, such a case was with me. I'm with a friend... we were standing at the station, already waiting for the last train to Kraskovo... Two guys were sitting on a nearby bench. Drunk people. In general, they shouted. I told him, shouted - be quiet. He shouted something insulting at me. I got up and went in their direction. ... In general, I approach them, they look so, I already see-they are tuned in. And I say: guys, I say, a lot of people are tired. They are going home, you don't even give them any peace..., keep your voice down. Just like that, he was taken aback. They already thought there would be a conflict. They don't mind it themselves, I think they would. They were looking for someone to talk to. In general, they are: sorry, back and forth. ... We walked away and stood up. The whole station looks like this. We thought that now these bearded people will go, there will be something there (husband, young age, public figure, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

I must say that Protestants also played a similar role during the Reformation. Their moralizing attracted disoriented and confused urban migrants, and

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the congregation's discipline taught them urban style, provided new standards of order and new habits, separated them from the motley crowd of a growing city, and eventually built their self-confidence.61
A more difficult question is to identify, in relation to Islamic fundamentalism, an analog of what Weber considered to be unforeseen and even undesirable consequences for the ideologists of the Reformation, which at the same time contribute to modernization. First of all, such consequences are connected with the fact that fundamentalists (as well as Protestant reformers) reject tradition, the social organization and social regulation associated with it. Sometimes, based on the fact that fundamentalists seek to go back to their roots, they claim that Islamic fundamentalism supports traditionalism.62 This is far from the case. To understand the paradox that arises here (similar to the paradox of the Reformation), it is necessary to understand what, in fact, the past is called by fundamentalists. The beginning of any religion is a charismatic period, a period of breaking stereotypes, searching and breaking through into the unknown, a period of heroism and sacrifice. Then a tradition gradually develops that adapts the requirements of religion to the needs of the current life, the interests of those in power, the routines of everyday life, and denies search and creativity. In Islam, this manifested itself in the image of "closing the gates of Ijtihad" - a ban on independent judgment, the creative development of Islam. Therefore, the past here means, on the one hand, the revival of certain archaic rites and practices, but, on the other hand, the legitimization of the process of spiritual search. "Knowledge confronts tradition "(male, middle age, working class, Dagestan, mountain village) - so sfor-

61. Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, p. 243.

62. " Critical periods... significantly increase the interest of people experiencing frustration and depression in historical traditions. Traditionalism, brought to its logical end, is the main prerequisite for various manifestations of such a radical ideological trend as fundamentalism" (Pain E. A. Social nature of extremism and terrorism // Social Sciences and Modernity. 2002. N 4. p. 115). "The general idea is that religious fundamentalism is an expression of the increasing rigidity of traditional identities" (Roy, O. Globalized Islam: the Search for a New Ummah, p.329).

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one of the interlocutors modeled the essence of the intra-Islamic conflict in Dagestan.

What are the consequences of the destruction of traditions as a result of the influence of the ideology of Islamic fundamentalism? Here are some examples.

First, it is the creation of conditions for the formation of individualism. The situation here is very close to the classical Reformation. Individualization of the choice of religious views, the priority of horizontal connections of like-minded people over blood-related hierarchies, independent study of primary sources and denial of unconditional adherence to religious authorities, submission primarily to divine directives, and not to those in power - all these factors undoubtedly contribute to the emancipation of the individual, the destruction of the dominance of collectivism over the individual will of an individual. Olivier Roy vividly describes the connection between neo-fundamentalism and the formation of individualistic values:

By freeing the believer from the bonds of traditional societies, family, tribal, status and ethnic solidarity, as well as from the bonds of religious fraternities, religious institutions and traditions, neo-fundamentalism promotes individualism or, more precisely, it sacralizes the experience of individualization. By reaching out to young people over the heads of their parents, ignoring the Ulama and preferring direct access to texts, and encouraging a personalized return to correct Islamic dogma, neo-fundamentalists promote the individual as opposed to any group or hierarchy.63
Similar processes are noted by researchers of Islam in the North Caucasus.

The Salafi demand for strict worship of Allah alone seems to liberate the individual from the power of patriarchal tukhum (tribal) traditions, providing the highest religious sanction for the desire to live independently, especially among young people-

63. Roy, O. Globalized Islam: the Search for a New Ummah, p. 268.

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social solidarity and self-determination in the framework of new modern forms of social solidarity 64.

It is also important that Sharia law does not provide for collective responsibility - everyone is responsible for their own actions.

Secondly, it is the education of law-abiding behavior. Not all fundamentalists believe that it is absolutely necessary to follow the laws of the secular states where they live. But the idea of unconditional compliance with the divine law - Sharia - is one of the cornerstones of the fundamentalist worldview, regardless of the persons given from above. This differs significantly from traditional legal approaches, where the maintenance of hierarchical subordination relationships is built into the system of norms. The difference can be demonstrated by the example of the reaction of the defenders of adat and sharia to the case of an honor killing, information about which was posted on the Internet. The first - " It was necessary to obey the men of their kind, and she trampled on their moral law. The result is obvious." The second - " This is a real horror. They're already sick of lynching."

Education of law-abiding is also associated with the recognition of the inviolability of contractual obligations, honest behavior in relation to counterparties.

Contract, especially employment, in Sharia see what it is. Anyone who violates a contract is a hypocrite. And hypocrites, they are at the very bottom of hell according to the Islamic doctrine (husband, middle age, businessman, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

Third, although the influence of fundamentalist Islam on tender relations is far from unambiguous and, as in the framework of the Reformation, very contradictory, certain modernization trends can also be identified here. Islamic fundamentalism does not recognize gender equality, but significantly expands the rights of women in comparison with the norms of traditional society, at least in a number of North Caucasian republics. In Islam, a woman is a subject of law, can make legal claims against her husband, demand a divorce. And the like

64. Makarov D. V. Official and unofficial Islam. p. 28.

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In this context, Islam is perceived as a justification for women's protest against the tyranny of men.

I now know that this is what I have the right to do. That is, these are my God-given rights. ... Why do you oppress me, husband? I can go to the end, because God is with me (husband, about his mother, young age, businessman, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

It is also important to change the attitude towards girls in families where they are traditionally considered "second-class" in relation to boys. In many families of North Caucasian fundamentalists, this division is not observed, and much attention is paid to the upbringing of girls (perhaps because the Prophet had a beloved daughter). Changing the conditions of early socialization can significantly affect the prospects for positioning women in adulthood.

Of course, all these modernization effects that are directly or indirectly manifested are not universal. First, they are quite contradictory, especially when they manifest themselves not because of, but in spite of, the doctrine that is being implemented: avoiding the dictates of elders may lead not to the formation of individualism, but to its replacement by the dictates of the Islamic community and its leaders; abuse of the position of subordination of the wife to the husband may result in even more than earlier, the enslavement of women. Secondly, among fundamentalists, another alternative system of values is quite common, which is obviously anti-modern: denial of the importance of secular knowledge, active rejection of any interaction with the outside world in relation to the religious community, combined with social dependency. In fact, such a mosaic of values, a combination of incompatible things, was also characteristic of the Protestant Reformation.

The effects associated with increased religious tolerance have not yet been observed. On the contrary, intra-Islamic conflicts are extremely acute. A broad understanding that " Islam is much broader than any ritual differences. ... The blood of a Muslim is more valuable" (husband, young age, public figure, Dagestan, Makhachkala) - has not yet matured in the Islamic Ummah. However, even within the Reformation, the idea of religious tolerance also made its way long and hard, through many years of religious conflicts and wars.

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A direct and roundabout path to modernity

An analysis of the current situation in Islam in terms of the Islamic Reformation, which may form the prerequisites for modernization, leaves open the question: is such a difficult path inevitable? Why is it not possible, based on the experience already available in Western countries, to simply introduce modernization formats that have already been developed in the process of social development? It is well known that Islamic fundamentalism is opposed not only to tradition, but also to modern models of society that provide for democracy, human rights, and tolerance. As noted above, there are thinkers who seek to reconcile Islam with these models. Why can't the reformation of Islam take place on the basis of their views, without sharp clashes, bloody conflicts and conflicting values?

I must say that the Protestant Reformation raises similar questions. At that time, there was also an alternative ideology, much closer to modern modernization ideas - Renaissance humanism. The greatness of man, his limitless possibilities, freedom of will, freedom of conscience - all these values were openly proclaimed by humanists. The Renaissance symbolized the destruction of old norms and provided an opportunity for the expression of a brilliant, often fantastic and eccentric personality, which was made possible by the destruction of these norms.65
Why didn't it become the basis of social transformation? Perhaps two reasons can be given here.

First, humanism was a much more elitist ideology, unable to help the average person of his time understand the world. Ideas of self-realization of the individual, pleasure as its highest manifestation could attract representatives of the elite, but they caused only rejection and condemnation among the mass of ordinary people.

Secondly, humanists, while condemning the evils of modern society and proposing individual reforms, nevertheless do not seek to do so.-

65. Walzer, M. The Revolution of the Saints. A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics, p. 123.

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They were able to form a comprehensive program for the reconstruction of the world and fit quite well into the environment that caused radical rejection among the ideologists of the Reformation and with which the latter were ready to fight uncompromisingly.

In many ways, similar factors still apply today.

On the one hand, for people leaving the traditional regulatory system, modern models of society are perceived as alien, chaotic, characterized by permissiveness and lack of morality. And it may have nothing to do with religion. Here is the position of an absolutely secular Dagestani:

Why we believe that liberal democracy ... - is this the only objective way for the development of society? ... I approach this from the point of view that ... this whole process must obey ... the phenomenon that we call morality. ... Both economic and other processes should. ... If I tell a person: ... it is written on the banners of liberalism to accept the right of a person, and the collective, the state and so on in second place, you can not see a person standing next to you, this will not lead to morality. ... I don't believe anything right now. This liberalism has brought me to such a state that I don't believe in anything. I don't trust the state, and I don't trust the people around me - they pursue their own goals, I don't trust anyone! (male, senior, scientist, Dagestan, Makhachkala).

Until the traditionalist views are somehow broken, for example, by the religious reformation ideology, until this ideological space is cleared, liberal views will not take root here.

On the other hand, Islamic countries face, first of all, the "dark side" of modernity - many of them have long been dominated by tough authoritarian regimes supported from the outside, which do not recognize democratic mechanisms, violate human rights, and monopolize the benefits of economic modernization within the ruling group, while at the same time not trying to mitigate the social costs associated with it. In these circumstances, fundamentalist Islam acts as a protest ideology that helps to mobilize those who are dissatisfied with the current situation. Liberal Islam is not able to respond to such a request, or this response is much weaker than in the framework of more radical ideologies. Its carriers in many cases " are either isolated from their society,

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or, more often, by yourself ... they are part of traditional networks and combine democratic rhetoric with social protection " 66, i.e., with involvement in patron-client relations.

The complex dialectic of social transformation discussed above was not taken into account in the post - World War II theories of modernization, which were based on the fact that modernization is a universal recipe for the transition from traditional to modern society, and it will certainly work if all the ingredients are available and in the right proportions. However, such a "direct road" to modernization can only be an artificial construct imposed on society, which does not follow from the social situation and social demands, and is correspondingly unstable, inevitably involving a power component, and therefore fraught with serious conflicts and setbacks, as the history of many countries, including those with an Islamic population, has shown.

At the same time, the collapse of the modernization paradigm in such a simplified form has led to the fact that the modernization agenda in the social sciences has become unfashionable. Ideologically, in contrast to the concept of a "universal recipe", the possibility of" multiple "or" alternative " modernity was recognized, 67 but this approach was not developed in depth either at the theoretical level or at the level of specific research. As a result, the child was actually thrown out of the water - social sciences lost the tools for analyzing the large-scale social changes that accompany the processes of globalization, the transition from rural to urban civilization, and similar shifts taking place in modern conditions, regardless of whether we call them modernization or not. And this toolkit needs to be restored, otherwise it will be almost impossible to understand and adequately assess the complex and ambiguous transformation processes taking place, including in the Islamic world. Identifying the role of religions and ideologies within their framework is one of the necessary tasks. Possible-

66. Roy, O. Globalized Islam: the Search for a New Ummah, p. 82.

67. See, for example: Eisenstadt, S.N. (2003) "Multiple Modernities", Comparative Civilizations and Multiple Modernities. Part II. Brill Leiden Boston; Gaonkar, D.P. (2001) "On Alternative Modernities", in D.P. Gaonkar (ed.) Alternative Modernities. Duke University Press.

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however, considering the current processes in Islam in the logic of the Reformation will allow us to move forward on this path.

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