In the previous articles of the series, the Eurasian and Sino-Malay scenarios of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic were considered. A different pattern can be traced in Africa. Based on the materials of a wide range of sources, it is shown that despite the great variability of Paleolithic processes on the African continent, they are characterized by a general trend-the preservation of the Middle Paleolithic strategy of core splitting. For the transitional industries of North and East Africa, Aterian arrowheads and tools of geometric shapes with a blunted edge are typical.

Key words: South, North and East Africa, Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition, Steelbay industries, Howison's port, ater, dabban, sakutiek.

Introduction

In three previous articles published in the journal "Archeology, Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia" [2010a, b; 2011], two scenarios of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic in Eurasia were considered, based on the analysis of the stone industry and paleoanthropological material of localities in the chronological range of 100-30 thousand years AGO. The process of cutting, standardization of tool sets (scrapers, chisels, drills, punctures, pegs on plates, etc.) can be traced in North, Central, South-West, Asia Minor and Europe. In this vast territory, there is great variability in the Late Middle Paleolithic industries, but at the same time there are many common elements in the primary and secondary stone processing, which suggests a single scenario for the transition to the Upper Paleolithic. Here, during the Middle and final stages of the Middle Paleolithic, the role of plate splitting increased and the resulting blanks became the basis for the manufacture of stone tools of many Upper Paleolithic types.

Another scenario of transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic can be traced in East and Southeast Asia. Archaeological evidence strongly suggests the undoubted unity of Paleolithic industries in this area for 1.5 million years and their significant difference from the industry of the rest of Eurasia. In the Sino-Malay zone, the Levallois system of primary cleavage has not been identified; nucleic acids predominate.-

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tools for removing flakes, tools are designed on flakes or special blanks. The bifacial system appeared in this area convergently, and tools such as choppers and jib-heads appeared about 1 million years ago, 400 thousand years earlier than in Europe. In East and Southeast Asia, Paleolithic industries evolved in such a way that there are no convincing criteria for distinguishing the Middle Paleolithic. The absence of the Levallois system here could not have led to the convergent appearance of plate splitting. It appeared on this territory ca. 30 thousand years AGO, and maybe even a little earlier with the arrival of migrants from neighboring regions of Mongolia and Southern Siberia. Lamellar and later microplate splitting co-existed in the Sino-Malay zone with flaking for 10-30 thousand years, and the proportion of flakes used as billets in Southern China and Southeast Asia is significantly higher than that of plates. All this indicates significant differences in the processes of transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic in the Sino-Malay zone in comparison with other territories of Eurasia. In East and South-East Asia, in the range of 100-30 thousand rubles. There is no trace of the arrival of a modern human population of anthropological and genetic type from the West with a different industry. The physical type of man and his industry were autochthonously formed in this territory. Thus, another scenario of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic in the Sino-Malay zone was based on the peculiarity of the development of not only industry, but also the person himself.

The transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic in Africa was significantly different from the Eurasian and Sino-Malay scenarios. Modern archaeological, anthropological, and paleogenetic data convincingly prove that the modern anthropological and genetic type of man was formed on the African continent around 190-150 thousand years ago. But the available extensive archaeological material, in my opinion, indicates that, first of all, if there was an 80-30 thousand years AGO, the emergence of Homo sapiens In the case of sapiens from Africa to Eurasia, it is not on the scale assumed by monocentrists, and, secondly, the arrival of African populations in a particular territory did not lead to the complete replacement of the autochthonous population by newcomers. Of course, there was acculturation, diffusion and dialogue of cultures.

In Africa, the transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic occurred at different times in different regions between 100 and 20 KA BP, and significantly differed from the Eurasian and Sino-Malay scenarios. Moreover, the study of the industry in Africa and Eurasia does not give any grounds for asserting a global migration flow from Africa to Europe and to the east, to Australia 70 - 30 thousand years AGO. All the archaeological material of the Paleolithic sites of Asia and Australia, belonging to this chronological interval, indicates the absence of any significant changes in the primary migration system., secondary processing and types of stone tools. The migration flow of modern anthropological and genetic human populations from Africa must have led, if not to a complete change of industry (if the autochthonous population was replaced by newcomers) in transit territories, then to significant changes (during acculturation and diffusion of cultures), which is completely untraceable at Paleolithic sites in Central, Northern, Southern, and Eastern Europe. and Southeast Asia.

Let us briefly consider the development of industry in South and East Africa in the interval of 100-30 thousand years AGO in order to understand the peculiarity of the African scenario of transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic, its difference from the Eurasian and Sino-Malay.

Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in South Africa

The Middle Paleolithic in Africa is best studied in the south, where a significant number of layered sites are known and studied in caves, under rock canopies, as well as open type: Border, Blombos, Bumplaas, Sibudu, Rose Cottage, Diepkloof, Apollo 11, Nelson Bay, Pirsa, Sekhonghong Umhlatuzana, etc. (Fig.The beginning of the Middle Paleolithic, or, as researchers usually call it, the Middle Stone Age (MSA), is recorded by the disappearance of bifaces, cleavers and other products typical of the Late Acheulean at Paleolithic sites. The chronological boundary of the transition is defined differently in different regions: from 250 to 200 KA BP. The most important sites for the periodization and characterization of the Middle Paleolithic industry are located on the Clasies River. R. Singer and I. Wymer (Singer and Wymer, 1982) identified several stages of development of the Middle Paleolithic industry: MSA I, MSA II, Howison's port, MSA III, MSA IV. Later attempts were made to refine this scheme, in particular, T. Volman (1984) proposed a more fractional division, but in general it remains fundamental.

To solve the problem of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic, localities dating back to the period of 80-30 thousand BC are of great importance.-

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Figure 1. Location of the main Late Middle Paleolithic sites in South Africa (according to Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007).

1-Rose Cottage; 2 - Sibudu; 3-Clasies River Maut; 4-Border; 5-Umhlatuzana; 6-Howison's Port; 7-Nelson Bay; 8-Bumplaas; 9-Blombos; 10 - Pier Cave; 11-Diepkloof; 12-Apollo 11.

2. Plan of the Blombos cave excavation (according to [D'Errico et al., 2005]).

a - undiscovered areas; b-d - con - centration of shells per 1 m2: b - 1, c - 2 - 5; d-more than 5.

sequences in this range can be traced in the Blombos Cave, located 300 km from Cape Town in the coastal part of the island. Good Hope, 100 m from the ocean (Henshilwood et al., 2001; D'Errico et al., 2005). The cave is located at an altitude of 34.5 m above sea level. The entrance to it was almost completely covered with dune sand, which overlapped Neolithic cultural horizons by about 20 cm, which is evidence of undisturbed loose deposits of the cave (Henshilwood, 2005). Inside they cover more than 50 m2, outside the drip line-about 18 m2 (Figure 2). Excavations were carried out from 1991 to 2004 for more than seven field seasons.

Middle Paleolithic loose deposits are mainly represented by Aeolian sands of marine origin. They contained inclusions of shells, humus residues, and limestone. The Middle Paleolithic deposits were overlain by a layer of sterile sand 5-50 cm thick, above which lay the Late Paleolithic horizon.

In the lower part of the loose sediments, defined as the M3 phase (Fig. 3), a large number of mollusk shells were found, more than 8 thousand. pieces of ochre, many with traces of processing in the form of scraping and cutting. Faunal remains show that humans hunted large and small animals, extracted shellfish, marine mammals, caught fish and reptiles. The stone inventory is not exactly typical for MSA I and MSA II. An approximate age of more than 100 thousand years was proposed for this phase. Four overlying levels with carbonized interlayers, large foci, and mollusk remains are assigned to the M2 phase. Several bifacially processed stone products and more than 20 bone tools, including points, which were probably used as arrowheads and awls, were recovered from these deposits (Henshilwood et al., 2001). The dates of 76 ± 7 and 105 ± 9 Ka BP were obtained by the thermoluminescent method (D'Errico et al., 2005). The next stratigraphic division of Ml consisted of five layers. Small cup-shaped hearths with remnants of coal, ash, and ash were found in them. Carbonized ABMs-

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3. Section in Blombos Cave (according to [Jacobs et al., 2006]).

puffs several millimeters thick were markers that separated the stages of habitation. The upper part of the cultural horizon included the steelbay industry. The layer contains about 400 bilaterally processed arrowheads, including those with a well-formed nozzle, more than 10 bone tools, and a bone fragment with engraved longitudinal lines. The thermoluminescence method was used to determine the age from 67 ± 7 to 82 ± 8 Ka [Ibid.], and the OSL date was 75.2 ± 3.9 Ka BP [Jacobs, Wintle, and Duller, 2003].

During excavations in Blombos cave, 41 beads from Nassarius kraussianus shells were found with holes made in them: 39 - in the upper part of the stilbay section, at all levels of the M1 phase, and 2-in the lower M2 horizon. Not all researchers support the idea of artificial origin of holes in shells and their use as ornaments or symbols. F. D'Errico and co-authors conducted a special study [D'Errico et al., 2005] and proved that the shells were collected and brought to the cave by people who processed and used them. The authors established the occurrence of these finds in situ: no evidence of their occurrence from later overlying cultural horizons was found.

Shellfish of Nassarius kraussianus were not brought to the cave for human consumption, since their soft tissues were less than 1 g and very important fatty acids in the human diet could be obtained from larger shellfish and fish. For the production of beads, the shells of adult individuals were used, which are most suitable for making holes in them. Microscopic examination of the edges of the holes showed that the piercing tool was a bone awl or crab claw. The worn edges of the holes indicate the wearing of shells strung on a thin, probably leather cord, in the form of beads. Four of the shells bore microscopic traces of ochre. The beads are found at a short distance from each other and are grouped by color and size. It can be assumed that each of the groups belongs to the same necklace, which was lost or intentionally left here during some event and later underwent minimal movement [Ibid., p. 18].

Researchers rightly note that despite the large number of publications, the authors pay little attention to the detailed characterization of the industry from Paleolithic sites (Vishnyatsky, 2008). The early stage of MSA I is characterized by lamellar cleavage. Despite not very high-quality local raw materials, mainly quartzite, plates and elongated points predominate among the blanks, which were often used without additional processing. At the next stage (MSA II), the number of points increases, and some have a dedicated base designed for mounting, as well as tools made of fine-grained material - selkerite, cornea, etc. Bifacially treated bay leaf tips with a dedicated mounting base are widely used in the steelbay industry.

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The next stage is Howison's Port. This industry is considered by some researchers to be special, different from others [Singer and Wymer, 1982; Thackeray J. F., 1992; et al.]. Its specificity lies in the appearance of geometric tools with a blunted sharp retouched edge and the use of significantly more non-native raw materials.

The differences between the MSA I, MSA II, and Howison's Port industries are most fully considered at locations on the Clasies River (Wurz, 2005). MSA II is divided into upper and lower. This approach allowed S. Wurz to identify a broader set of differences between MSA I, MSA II, and Howison's Port on the Clasies River. The Middle Stone Age in this territory, as well as in the adjacent ones, is characterized by plate-like industries and industries of pinnacles, prepared nuclei were used for chipping plates. Most of the stone products are made from quartzite cobblestones found near the localities. In the MSA I and MSA II industries, more than 98% of the artifacts are made of quartzite [Ibid.]. At the Howison's Port sites, fine-grained material of non-native origin was used along with quartzite, and approx. 30 % of products. This industry differs from other Middle Paleolithic industries in terms of raw stone raw materials.

S. Wurz [Ibid. Based on Middle Stone Age sites in southern Africa, the author identifies two strategies for preparing and splitting cores. The most common ones are radial-type nuclei (Fig. 4, 3, 6, 8). The back side of them was treated with short chips from the edge to the center, where a pebble surface often remained. The opposite side was a front for removing workpieces or a work platform. At the MSA I locations, plate blanks were mostly removed from one impact site, and at the Howison's port stage, they were often removed from two in the opposite direction. MSA II is most characterized by the Levallois cleavage system, when points were cleaved from the working front (Figs. 4, 3, 5). MSA I and Howison's Port are characterized by so-called pyramidal nuclei (Figs.4, 1, 4). These are three-dimensional cores of the Upper Paleolithic rotary type with a working front on two or three sides. A small number of end nuclei are also present (Fig. 4, 2). At the MSA stage I, the radial-type nuclei, most of which should be classified typologically as Levallois nuclei, were stripped of their pinnules and plates, while the pyramidal ones were stripped of their plates. At the MSA II localities, Levallois points were mainly used as blanks; no pyramidal nuclei were found. At the Howisonset stage, pyramidal and double-plate nuclei were used for removing plates; Levallois points are not known. At the Middle Paleolithic sites in southern Africa, the cores were prepared for work and the blanks were chipped with soft and hard chippers.

Plates and pegs were the main blanks for the manufacture of products. At Howison's port locations, the plates are smaller, geometrically shaped, with a blunted retouched back and a small percussion pad, and the technological characteristics of-

4. Nuclei from Middle Paleolithic sites in southern Africa (according to [Wurz, 2005]).

1, 2 - MSA I; 3, 5, 7-MSA II; 4, 6, 8-Howison's port.

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the risks of which indicate that the workpiece is removed from the nucleus with a soft bump. They were intended, according to researchers, for the manufacture of composite tools. At the MSA I locations, the plates were also removed with a soft bump, although their sites are larger. For MSA II, facetted impact pads are typical, which are asymmetric, i.e. the impact bump and the impact axis are not symmetrical to the longitudinal axis. According to the point of view of L. Meignen [Meignen, 1995], such billets are obtained by applying the recurrent splitting method in a convergent strategy. According to S. Wurz, when comparing the blanks of MSA I and MSA II, large differences are revealed. In the former, the width of the plate and tip areas is much smaller, and the ratio of the workpiece length to the site length is higher; the upper MSA II points are much shorter than in the lower MSA II and MSA I [Wurz, 2005, p. 433].

A comparative analysis of the MSA I, MSA II, and Howison's Port industries strongly confirmed the proximity of the primary cleavage of MSA I and Howison's Port. They are characterized by bulk nuclei of the Upper Paleolithic rotary type, whereas MSA II is characterized by the Levallois system. In the MSA I and Howison's Port industries, the impact pads are small, often with traces of abrasion and special thinning, which implies the use of a soft bump pad for removing plates. In the MSA II, the impact pads were large, wide, and faceted, and the workpieces were chipped using a rigid chipper. At the Howison's Port stage, as well as in the Upper Paleolithic, plates were produced, which were then modified by soft retouching with a steep retouch into standardized tools of geometric shapes.

A number of researchers (Beaumont, D'villiers, Vogel, 1978; Singer, Wymer, 1982; Thackeray J. F., 1992; Wadley, 1997; and others) have considered the Stilbay and Howison's Port industries to be transitional from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic, and with good reason. There are different points of view on the chronological relationship of these events. The available dates obtained by various methods are quite contradictory. The main localities in ancient times were beyond the capabilities of the radiocarbon method. Thermoluminescent (TL), thorium-uranium (Tn/U), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), and others were not always applicable due to the specifics of loose deposits and often gave large errors in determining the age.

Over the past decade, new dating results have been obtained, and most importantly, at the multilayer sites in Border, Nelson Bay, Diepkloof and other caves, the Howison's Port layers are overlain by Stilbeian ones. The steelbay industry is most fully studied in the Blombos cave, where the culture-bearing horizons are fairly reliably dated. For this industry, bifacially processed leaf-shaped tips with a dedicated attachment for fixing in a wooden base are diagnostic. As noted above, shell beads and about 30 bone tools made by planing and grinding with abrasives were found in large quantities in the Blombos cave. Awls made of bone could be used in the manufacture of shell beads. Three polished products may have been used as handpieces (D'Errico and Henshilwood, 2007). Despite the early dates of the stilbay industry, from 85 to 75 thousand years AGO, many Upper Paleolithic elements can be traced in it.

There are many more Upper Paleolithic elements in the Howison's port industry. It is characterized by Upper Paleolithic pyramidal nuclei, the use of an intermediary and a soft bump in primary and secondary processing, spin retouching, and geometric shapes of stone products decorated with a steep edge retouching. At all Howison's port locations, the main shape of the blank is plates and plates. An ostrich egg shell with a grid pattern was found on the Diepkloof monument, and two perforated shells were found in the Border cave.

The Howison's Port industry has attracted the attention of researchers since 1927, when the location that gave it its name was discovered. One of the sites with this industry was located in Rose Cottage Cave (Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007; Harper, 1997). It is located at an altitude of 1,676 m, oriented to the north and has a length of 20 m, a width of 10 m. Excavations in the cave were conducted in 1943 - 1946, 1962, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1997 years The culture-bearing horizons of Prehovison's port (lithological layers designated LEN, KUB, and KUA), Howison's port (from EMD to SUZ), and Posthovison's port (from BYR to KAR) were identified (Figure 5) and the chronological sequence of layers was determined (see Table).

Soriano et al. analyzed 1,139 artifacts from Rose Cottage Cave (Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007), including 805 from the Posthovison Port horizons, including 129 nuclei and their fragments, and 245 tools. The main raw materials are chalcedony and opals, and a small amount of volcanic tuff and sandstone was used. In the layers of EMD and SUZ plates and flakes of chalcedony and opals, respectively, 96.8 and 92.5%. Nuclei made from these types of stone - 96.5 %, and retouched products-99 %. The same raw materials were used in the post-Addison's port period.

Among the cleavage products in the lower layers of Howison's port EMD and MAS, small amounts predominate.

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5. Section in the Rose Cottage Cave (according to [Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007]).

6). About 70 % of plate chips are less than 12 mm wide. The average width of the plates is approx. 10 mm. Plates with a length-to-width ratio of more than 4 in the EMD and MAS layers are 7.2 and 6.4%, respectively.

Many nuclei in the initial stage of operation have a pebbly surface (Fig. 7, 1-4). In 20-30% of the plates, the impact pads also retain a pebbly surface [Ibid., p. 686]. Among the nuclei, pyramidal, subprismatic ones predominate, and Levallois ones are represented in a small number for removing flakes (Figure 7). The cleavage process began in most cases on the narrow surface of the nodule using a long natural rib. S. Soriano and co-authors reconstruct two configurations in the cleavage sequence of lamellar nuclei (Figure 8). The nuclei fell out of use, when the length of the chipping surface was reduced to 20-25 mm (see fig. 7, 1 - 5, 7). The cleavage process took place mainly using a single site, but there are also two-site cores.

At the Rose Cottage site, hard and soft chipping blocks were used to break the plates. It was determined that in each of the EDM and MAS layers, 47.3% of the blanks were removed with a hard bump, and 8.5 and 8.6% with a soft bump, respectively [Ibid.]. Both tools could be used in the operational chain of chipping blanks from the same nucleus at different stages of its disposal. According to S. Soriano and his coauthors, no intermediary was used to remove blanks at the Rose Cottage site during the Howison's Port period, which contradicts the conclusions of other researchers (Singer and Wymer, 1982). The technique of chipping plates by means of an edge impact with a stone bump has analogies in the European Middle Paleolithic and cannot be considered innovative in the Hovison port industry [Soriano, Villa, Wadley, 2007]. It was widespread in the Upper Paleolithic.

Timeline of MSA layers at Rose Cottage Cave*

Phase

Layer

TL-date (thousand years ago)

Layer

OSL-date (thousand years ago)

Posthovison's Port

THO

47,1 ± 10,2

LYN

33 ± 2

CLI

49,4 ± 10,1

BYR

50,5 ± 4,6

BYR/ANN/L

57 ± 3

Howison's Port

SUZ

58,6 ± 6,6

ETH

41,7 ± 3,7

SUZ/ETH/BER

59 ± 4

BER

56,3 ± 4,5 60,0 ± 4,6

EMD

48,9 ± 5,3

EMB/EMC/EMD

66 ± 4

KUA

61 ± 4

Prehovison's Port

LEN (four independent samples)

64,5 ± 6,6
68.4 ± 8,3
72.5 ± 6,8
76,3 ± 14,8

LEN

86 ± 6

* According to: [Soriano, Villa, Wadley, 2007, p. 682].

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6. Cleavage products from Howison's Port layers in Rose Cottage Cave (according to Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007).

7. Nuclei from Howison's Port layers in Rose Cottage Cave (according to Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007).

1-5, 7-lamellar; 6-levallois for removing flakes; 8, 9-unidirectional for removing flakes. 1, 2 - EMD layer; 4, 5-MAS layer; 3, 8-ETN layer; 6, 7, 9-SUZ layer.

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Figure 8. Two configurations in the cleavage sequence of lamellar nuclei from Rose Cottage Cave (according to Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007).

A - increase in the operational length of the cleavage surface; B-decrease in this length.

9. Nuclei from the culture-bearing horizons of Posthovison's Port in Rose Cottage Cave (according to Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007).

In the Posthovison port layers, there is some archaization in primary and secondary processing: the number of plates is significantly reduced and the number of flakes used as blanks, as well as nuclei for removing flakes, is increased, among them there are many Levallois nuclei (Fig. 9). In the TNO layer, the bipolar technique of cleaving blanks is widely represented. Wafer production is losing its importance, and Levallois nuclei for removing flakes are becoming predominant, and lamellar ones are almost disappearing. Volcanic tuff is more often used as the starting material, while the proportion of chalcedony rocks decreases [Ibid.].

The tool kit in the Hovison's Port industry at Rose Cottage Cave is very diverse: incisors, end scrapers, side and convergent scrapers, pegs, unipacial tools, awls, notched products, retouched plates and flakes, bone products, etc. The number of retouched items in the layers of Howison's port at various locations varies from 4 to 8 % of the total number of artifacts. Most of the guns (90 %) were designed on plates. The most numerous products are geometric shapes with a blunted steep edge retouching back. They include segments, triangles, and partially plates (Figure 10). The length of these products is 27.3 ± 7.4 mm, which, according to the researchers, is due to the size of the initial raw material [Ibid.]. The proximal and distal ends were often formed with steep edge retouching. Plates with edge retouching along the entire length of the side face are rare.

Geometric tools with a blunted back are specific to the Middle Paleolithic of Africa. They appeared in Central Africa in the lupemban industry at the very beginning of the Middle Stone Age. But their greatest distribution is observed in the period of Howison's port. Edge blunting re technique-

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10. Plates with a blunted back from the Rose Cottage Cave (according to Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007).

carcasses are known in the Middle Paleolithic and in Europe. But geometric tools with a blunted back are certainly an innovative product of Central and Southern Africa. Such items are not known in the Middle Paleolithic in the Middle East. They were probably used as inserts for composite tools such as pointers, knives and daggers, which most likely had a wooden base, rather than a bone base, as in later Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic similar products.

Incisors at the Rose Cottage site are represented by a small number of specimens. At the end of the plate, a tool chip is made along the edge, and the second diagonal type removal is made from this edge to the opposite one (Fig. 11, 3). Another two-sided cutter is designed on a large fragment of a plate chip. One end is sharp-angled. From the dorsal side, a retouch is applied along the beveled diagonal edge, and incisor removals are made along the edge of the lamellar chip. With proti-

11. Tools from the Howison's Port (1-3) and post - Howison's Port (4-9) layers in Rose Cottage Cave (according to Soriano, Villa, and Wadley, 2007).

1-double-sided incisor; 2, 6-8-unifacial points; 3-incisor with lateral and distal incisor chips; 4, 5-scrapers; 9-lateral scraper (?) on the flake.

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11, 1). Scrapers and scrapers were made from plate chips and flakes. The working blade was designed mainly with a large single-row retouch with partial touch - up along the very edge of the blade. Other tools from the culture-bearing horizons of Howison's Port were made from plates or plate chips and processed mainly with steep retouching.

The location of Rose Cottage is important because the cultural horizons of Howison's Port are overlain by layers whose materials provide insight into the later industry. As noted above, at the Posthovisonson stage, lamellar cleavage is gradually replaced by cleavage and lamellar nuclei are replaced by Levallois nuclei to remove flakes. In layers above BYR, from 9.1% (KAR and LYN) to 26.5% (TNO) of completed tools were found. The most common ones are transversal and convergent scrapers (Figs. 11, 4, 5), as well as unifacial points (Figs. 11, 6 - 8). There are tools such as pieces esquillees, notched products, awls, retouched plates, flakes, etc.

In the tool kit, unifacial points made mainly from flakes are particularly distinguished - 96.2 % of the total number. They were processed mainly by single-row retouching with additional edge correction and retouching from the dorsal side. In all layers of the Rose Cottage locality, 43 whole points and 7 fragments were found. Blanks for them were small (length 36.6 ± 8.7 mm) sub-triangular flakes. At the Sibudu locality, 272 45-47 mm long uni - facial cusps were found in the Posthovison-port layers.

Materials from Rose Cottage Cave clearly demonstrate the dynamics of the Late Middle Paleolithic in southern Africa. S. Soriano et al. There are two stages of industry development. The first one is traced in the EMD and MAS layers. This is a" classic " Hovison's port, which is characterized by nuclei for removing plates and plates, geometric tools with a blunted back, which make up 60-68% of retouched products. Chalcedony rocks were used as the starting material for making tools. At the second, final stage of Howison's port (ETH and SUZ layers), the number of blank plates decreases, which are also significantly inferior in quality to the earlier ones: they have a less regular shape and the impact pad is not so well prepared. There is also a change in the technology of plate production: the edge chipping technique disappears, the Levallois technique appears. Among the blanks, the proportion of flakes increases. The number of geometric tools with a blunted back decreases and the number of scrapers increases. Volcanic tuff was often used as the starting material. For researchers, the reasons for the gradual disappearance of plates with a blunted back, which are present in all parking lots with the Howison's port industry in South Africa, remain debatable. There are various points of view on this problem (for a review, see: Ibid., p. 699-700]), but none of them can be considered sufficiently convincing.

The hovison port industry has many elements that are more typical of the Upper Paleolithic. Upper Paleolithic tools include chisels, chisel-shaped tools, and scrapers. Of course, products of geometric shapes with a blunted back, which could be inserts for composite tools, are innovative. Primary processing is also characterized mainly by Upper Paleolithic technologies. We can not exclude the presence of bone products at the locations of Howison's port. A bone spike was found in cave 1A on the Clasies River, which suggests the possibility of bone processing in this industry.

There is also no consensus on the chronological framework of the Howison's Port industry. A number of researchers consider it a short-term phenomenon. This industry was correlated with isotopic stages 5, 4, and 3 [Avery et al., 1997; Thackeray JF, 1987; Parkington, 1990; et al.]. S. Tribolo and co-authors [Tribolo, Mercier, and Valladas, 2005] made a detailed analysis of the dates obtained for the Howison's Port localities. For this industry, there are six dates in the Border Cave ranging from 76 ± 4 to 58 ± 2 thousand years ago. Two-62.4 ± 2 and 65.6 ± 5.3 thousand years ago-were obtained by the uranium-thorium method (U/Th) at the localities on the Clasies and Bumplaas rivers. For the latter, based on amino acid racemization, dates of 56 and 65 Ka BP were determined, depending on the calibration method; for Apollo 11, 63 ± 6 and 69 ± 7 Ka BP were determined. For the same horizons of the Bumplaas locality, earlier dates (80-72 Ka BP) are known. By combining the results of thermoluminescent and opto-luminescent dating (used on quartz and feldspar grains), the dates of 52.4 ± 4 and 46.7 ± 3.3 thousand years ago were determined.

Sh. Tribolo et al. [Ibid. For all levels of Howison's port, we obtained 13 TL-dates from 62 to 51 thousand years ago, with an average value of 56 ± 3 thousand years ago. This allowed them to state that the Howison's Port area is closer to 60 than to 70 thousand years ago. According to new data obtained by the TL method, the sediments under the Diepkloof rock canopy are 55-65 thousand years old, and the upper levels in Rose Cottage Cave are on average 57 ± 4 thousand years old. Wide range of dates for the howison's port industry

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In the Border cave, the authors conclude that its chronological framework at this locality is 70-60 thousand years ago. About 60 thousand years AGO, this industry appeared at the Rose Cottage and Bumplaas localities at the mouth of the Clasies River.

Despite the controversial nature of the problem of dating the Howison's Port industry, based on the available contradictory dates obtained for various localities in South Africa, the following scheme can be accepted as a working hypothesis: in the Border Cave, this industry appeared 80-70 thousand years AGO, which is supported by three age definitions of more than 70 thousand years; in Sibudu, it existed 64-50 60-55 thousand years ago; at the Classic River Mout site-60-50 thousand years AGO. Thus, the main chronological framework for the existence of the Howison's Port industry is probably 70-50 thousand years ago.

Howison's port later 55-50 thousand years AGO is replaced by the MSA III industry, which is significantly different from earlier ones. In the final stage of the Middle Stone Age in South Africa, primary cleavage is characterized by flat, mostly Levallois-type nuclei for removing shortened points and flakes. Bifacial tools, products of geometric shapes with a blunted edge disappear, there is no evidence of symbolism. The most common are scrapers, toothed-notched products, and shortened tips.

The very peculiar development of the Middle Stone Age industry in South Africa is causing lively discussions, and many unresolved issues remain. Let us focus on the main problem, from my point of view, of continuity and the presence of regularities in the dynamics of Middle Paleolithic industries in this territory. Most researchers adhere to the following scheme: MSA I > MSA IIa, b (the final stage is represented by the steelbay industry) > howison's port > MSA III. At the early stage of the Middle Paleolithic (MSA I), the industry is characterized by a lamellar orientation. Plates were most often used as blanks, often without additional retouching. They were removed mainly from disc-shaped and pyramidal nuclei. The primary cleavage of MSA I is close in technical and typological characteristics to that of the Howison's Port industry and the Upper Paleolithic. The early stage of MSA II differs significantly from the previous and subsequent stages in terms of the main technical and typological indicators. The industry that succeeds MSA I is poorly understood, as long as there is no reliable evidence of their continuity. From a formal point of view, it is impossible to find the origins bifacial stilbay spikelets at an early stage of MSA II. Although there are bifacial arrowheads at the site of Umhlatuzan in the early Howison's Port complex, there is no other strong evidence to support the claim of its continuity with the steelbay industry. Geometric-shaped weapons suddenly appear in the Howison's port stage and just as suddenly disappear - they are not present in MSA III. In general, the industry of the final stage of the Middle Stone Age in South Africa is seen by many researchers as more archaic than the previous ones. The available material makes it possible to distinguish these stages of the Middle Paleolithic, but there is no indisputable continuity between them yet. A particularly sharp boundary is observed between the Steelbay and Hovinsons Port industries, on the one hand, and MSA III, on the other. While the first two contain many Upper Paleolithic elements, the latter is much more archaic in all its main technical and typological characteristics. It is very important to note that tools of geometric shapes with blunted edges and bifacially processed points are found in Forsmith-the transition from Early to Middle Paleolithic industry in South Africa, but they are not found anywhere in the adjacent territories in the chronological range of 80-50 thousand years AGO, i.e. it is impossible to explain their appearance from the outside. This paradox in the dynamics of the Middle Stone Age industry has not yet received a clear interpretation. From my point of view, two main reasons can be most acceptable: the first is significant climate changes that led to the formation of new adaptation strategies; the second is the arrival of a new population to the territory of South Africa, which led, respectively, to significant technical and typological changes in the industry. In the latter case, both replacement of autochthonous populations and acculturation could occur. The most likely cause of radical changes in spiritual and material culture is precisely the migration processes in Africa in the range of 120-60 thousand years AGO.

One of the factors that significantly affected the population size, and consequently the intensity of migration processes, was the change of arid and pluvial periods. Arid conditions in Africa corresponded to cold snaps, and pluvials-to warming. This is confirmed not only in the Holocene, but also in the Late Pleistocene (Deacon, 1995, 2000; Henshilwood, 2005). The beginning of the late Pleistocene (140-118 Ka BP) is characterized by maximum humidity. The warmer stage of about 103-84 Ka BP included periods with lower peak humidity. After 60 thousand BP, there is a cooling and severe aridity up to 47 thousand BP, followed by short-term pluvial and arid periods. The maximum aridity occurs in the Upper Pleistocene at 18 thousand years ago. In the range of 140-65 thousand years of Earth's surface.

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The African continent experienced the greatest population growth and an intensive process of settling people of the modern physical type [Deacon, 2000, p. 214-215]. Despite different views on the time frames of warming and cooling events, the general pattern is that the population in Africa increased in pluvial periods and decreased in arid periods, apparently, took place. J. F. Thackeray (1987) conducted a multivariate statistical analysis of the NAR microfauna. Using the results of studies on fluctuations in the amount of shellfish remains, the author concluded that the Howison's Port industry was widespread during the warm period corresponding to stage 3 of the oxygen isotope scale, 58-48 thousand years ago.

It is likely that the Howison's Port industry, and possibly Stilbay, is associated with the arrival of another population from Central Africa to South Africa (Barham, 2002). This is confirmed by a significant number of artifacts from non-native fine-grained stone, as well as the fact that these industries are not related to their origin with the early stage of MSA II. Probably, during the time corresponding to stage 5b of the oxygen-isotope scale, due to climate deterioration, populations from the north, from the interior of the Congo, through the Cape mountain fold belt moved south, including to the coastal regions of the Indian Ocean. Migrants may also have come from Zimbabwe and Zambia, where lupembang-type industries were common or similar. Lupembane is divided into lower, upper, and lupembo-tschitol (Clark, 1982). The lower one is characterized by products of the peak type, nuclear switches, spear-shaped tools, various scrapers, retouched flakes, flakes and chips without retouching, but with traces of work; the upper one is characterized by well - designed switches, bifacial leaf-shaped tips. In the Lupembo-Tschitol industry, bifacial processing is preserved, Levallois splitting is widely represented, the products of which were used for the manufacture of various scrapers and other products, including notched ones.

This scenario is supported by data from the Twin Rivers locality in Zambia (Clark, 1971; Clark and Brown, 2001; Barham, 2002). It is located 24 km southwest of Lusaka. Excavations of the site were carried out from 1953 to 1956, and then in 1996-1997 on a 52-meter high hill composed of limestone. This high ground, surrounded by lowlands that are flooded with water when rivers flood, was a good shelter for animals. In the direction from east to west on the slopes of the hill

12. Stone tools from the Twin Rivers Monument (according to Clark and Brown, 2001).

1-quartz disc-shaped nucleus; 2-quartz bipolar nucleus; 3-shale disc-shaped nucleus; 4, 6-quartz nucleoid scrapers; 5-Levalloisian nucleus; 7 - quartz biconic nucleus; 8 - quartz chopper; 9 - large quartzite core for removing plates; 10-quartz chopper.

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13. Stone tools from the Twin Rivers Monument (according to Clark and Brown, 2001).

1, 4, 5 - quartz segments; 2-trapezoidal chip made of dense clay shale; 3-segmental tronked plate; 6 - fragment of a segment made of crystalline quartz; 7-fragment of a quartz segment; 8-quartz beveled tronked plate with a rim; 9, 11-triangular flakes with a faceted platform; 10-triangular a split with a faceted platform with a recess; 12 - a plate with a retouched disposal; 13-a hematite fragment; 14 - a quartzite scraper; 15 - a bifacial tip made of quartzite; 16 - a fragment of limonite; 17-a dolomite weathered whetstone with notches.

there are several karst crevices and craters filled with earth and red clay with inclusions of coarse-grained material. The sediments are heavily cemented. Already during the first exploratory excavations of K. P. Oakley in 1953, in one of the karst craters, later designated as Block A, the upper, brown and lower, pink breccia bundles were identified, which contained animal bones and various stone products. The lower cultural horizon was assigned to the Early Paleolithic, while the upper horizon was assigned to the Middle One, which was confirmed by the outstanding paleontologist, archaeologist, and philosopher P. Teilhard-de-Chardin who visited the excavations (see [Clark and Brown, 2001]).

Since 1954, excavations have been carried out at six sites, five of which (Blocks A-D) were located in different places of one karst crevice, and one (Block E) - in another small one, located about 100 m away. Due to the density of the breccia, contour blasting was used to loosen it. Excavations have not confirmed the long duration of the sedimentation process. All cultural horizons belong to the lupemban industry and date from the end of the Middle to the first half of the Upper Pleistocene.

Quartz, quartzite, and siliceous limestone, which were located nearby, were used as the starting material. Craftsmen chose cobblestones and angular nodules, as well as blocks. Most of the nuclei were formed on nodules and a small percentage - on large pebbles and flakes. Preparation of the cores was carried out in another place, and they were brought to the parking lot to receive blanks. Among the nuclei, disc-shaped, Levallois, polyhedra, biconic, protobiconic, and multi-site ones are represented (Fig. 12). There are a small number of cores for removing plates. The length of most nuclei is 20 - 40 cm. Chipping of workpieces was carried out with rigid chippers. The bipolar technique was also used. Standardized plates and flakes are relatively rare among blanks. There are triangular flakes with facetted areas removed from the Levallois nuclei (Figs. 13, 9-11).

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Typologically, the stone inventory from the Twin Rivers Monument is very diverse. Quite widely represented are spikes, choppers, choppers, spheroids, scrapers of various modifications, including large ones, as well as designed on worked nuclei, scrapers, bifacial tips, truncated plates and flakes, one-sided and two-sided points, incisors, chisel-shaped products, punctures (Fig. 14). Bifacial pinnacles and geometric tools are of particular importance for determining the cultural identity of the complex. Most of the pinnacles are found in fragments, but the possibility of considering them as a prototype of Stilbeys is very high. Geometric tools with blunted edges are mainly represented by segments and trapezoids (see Figures 12, 1-8). According to the authors, these pillow products belong to the late Lupembahn period [Ibid., p. 319]. One of the most interesting tools is quartzite pestle with hematite inclusions, which is clearly visible on the working surface. Several polished "rods" made of limonite, hematite, and manganese were also found in points A, B, and F (see Figs. 13, 13, and 16). According to D. Clark and K. Brown, the age of the late Lupemannian can be 95 thousand years or more. It is very likely that a migration wave from north to south Africa dates back to this time. R. Flint, who studied the karst cavity section at point A, noted that the breccia in the crater gradually formed on a layer of deposited rocks and both stratigraphic units contained animal bones and artifacts indicating the "proto-Stilbeian culture" (Flint, 1959, p. 357-358]. New evidence is needed to confirm this hypothesis. In any case, linking the origins of the Steelbay and Howison's Port industries to the earlier period-the early stage of MSA II-is even more problematic. Another scenario cannot be ruled out. At an earlier stage, the forsmith industry introduced bifacially shaped gabled tools and tools with a blunted edge. These innovations in Central and Southern Africa do not disappear without a trace. Throughout the Middle Stone Age, they continued to be used to a greater or lesser extent.

14. Stone tools from the Twin Rivers Monument (according to Clark and Brown, 2001).

1-two-sided quartz end scraper; 2-quartz convergent scraper; 3 - convergent shale scraper; 4 - bifacially treated quartz flake; 5, 8, 9-bifacial quartz tips; 6-quartz bifacial fragment; 7 - bifacial mudstone tip; 10-straight quartz scraper; 11-quartz spear-shaped tool without a base and tip; 12-quartz spear-shaped tool with a broken tip.

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depending on changing environmental conditions and the formation of new adaptation strategies. MSA I innovations such as plate cleavage, pyramidal pivoting nuclei, blunt-backed geometric implements, and other Upper Paleolithic elements are evident in the Hovison's Port industry. The essence of this process is still difficult to argue because of the lack of proper factual material. The main reason is the fragmentary knowledge of Middle Paleolithic areas in Central and Southern Africa.

It is difficult to fully agree with S. McBrearty and A. Brooks, who claim that many elements that characterize the Upper Paleolithic of Eurasia appear in Africa already in the Middle Stone Age (McBrearty and Brooks, 2000). Indeed, in stone processing, types of stone tools, bone processing, jewelry, and other symbolic expressions, such elements are more or less represented in Middle Paleolithic sites in southern Africa, and these innovations should not have disappeared without a trace. But as a result of what processes they could appear in Eurasia - a big unsolved problem. It is very important to establish who left the Howison's Port industry, which most fully displays many of the diagnostic features of the Upper Paleolithic.

A small amount of paleoanthropological material has been found at localities at the mouth of the Clasies River. Human frontal bone, part of the temporal bone, fragments of jaws and teeth, as well as some postcranial parts of the skeleton were found in the SAS deposits. On the frontal bone of an adult individual, there are traces of a cut to remove meat from the head. It is possible that this is evidence of cannibalism (Rightmire, 2001). According to the analysis of canonical values, the ulna from the main parking lot of the Classic River Maut is very close to the center of gravity of an archaic person. Its morphology suggests that the Middle Stone Age hominids from the Clasies River were not completely anatomically modern. Archaic elements of postcranial anatomy in the context of cranial or facial evolution may reflect the persistence of archaic patterns of upper limb use (Churchill et al., 1996, p. 233).

Despite the small number of postcranial parts of the skeleton (a fragment of the clavicle, radius and ulna, and three metatarsal bones), it was possible to calculate the growth of hominids from the Clasies River: for men - 1,580 mm, for women-1,523 mm. These individuals regularly assumed a knee-bent position (Rightmire et al., 2006). Analysis and comparison of all the skeletal fragments with other paleoanthropological finds led researchers to conclude that hominids from the Omo-1, Herto sites in Ethiopia and on the Clasies River indicate the presence of an African line (or lines) of evolution, representatives of which had the morphology of Homo sapiens or were in the process of developing in this direction [Ibid., p. 102]. This is consistent with the assessment of the level of behavioral capabilities of South African hominids. According to researchers, the study of faunal remains and tool kit shows that they remained primitive in behavior (Klein, 1989; Grine, Klein, and Volman, 1991). It is difficult to fully agree with this, since researchers do not have a single point of view regarding the diagnostic features that should determine the behavior that characterizes a modern type of person in Paleolithic people. A behavioral innovation in the hominids of South Africa in the Middle Pleistocene is the use of marine resources - a new element to characterize the adaptive abilities of humans at that time.

Pinnacle Point (PP 13 B), where three Middle Stone Age (MSA) horizons are identified, is located in Mosol Bay in southern Africa. It is located in a cave in the coastal rocks, which is located 15 m above the average level of the Indian Ocean (Marean et al., 2007). At the bottom lies a sandy horizon, the least cemented, with numerous lenses of burnt carbon-containing materials, which are the result of in situ combustion. Stone artifacts are found mainly in these lenses. Using optically stimulated luminescence, a date of 164 ± 12 thousand years AGO was obtained. The average horizon of MSA is ashy, with numerous dark focal lenses. A date of 132 ± 12 thousand years AGO was obtained for it by the XRD method. The upper horizon of the MSA consisted of three layers. Below lay sands and silts containing recycled ash. They were overlain by dune sands with a layer of fossil crustaceans. The date of this layer is 120 ± 7 thousand years AGO. Above this layer, there were dune sands that covered the cave. The upper horizon of the MSA was overlain by layered sediments dated to 92-39 Ka BP, which suggests that the cave was closed in this chronological interval.

In the Middle Paleolithic horizons, 1,836 artifacts were found, 78 % of which are made of quartzite. The Levallois system is most typical for primary cleavage. In addition, there are rotary type nuclei for removing plates and plates. Materials from the lower layer of plate blanks contain 64 copies, which exceeds the number (47 copies) of blanks obtained as a result of Levallois splitting.

Among the finds, there are 57 pieces of pigmented rock of various sizes, of which 46 are enriched

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iron-rich sedimentary rock that has a pinkish-or reddish-brown surface color. In terms of composition, all belong to the" red ochre " [Ibid.]. Ten fragments bear obvious traces of use (eight are ground and two are polished). The ochre samples, according to the researchers, had all the properties of paint for applying to the human body and, possibly, painting objects of organic origin.

The presence of a large number of fossils of marine invertebrates is a special feature of the culture-bearing horizons of the Middle Stone Age. A total of 15 species have been identified. The brown mussel (Perna perna) prevails, followed by the giant coast snail (Turbo Sarmaticus) and small gastropods. Based on the habitat, it can be assumed that the vast majority of crustaceans were collected on rocky open banks, as well as in tidal residual reservoirs. Crustaceans were probably the main source of food that contributed to the survival of humans, when as a result of the cold snap, climate aridization occurred and food resources were reduced.

Studies at the Pinnacle Point site (PP 13 B) show that Middle Paleolithic people in South Africa have high cognitive levels and that they can change their adaptation strategies as their environmental conditions change.

The final stage of the Middle Stone Age (MSA III) in southern Africa (ca.55-50 KA BP) was significantly different from the previous stage of Howison's port in terms of raw materials used and many technical and typological characteristics. The most well-studied cultural horizons of the late MSA are found at the Dee Kelders, Sibudu, Rose Cottage, and other localities. They mainly present the Levallois system of primary cleavage. Nuclei mostly have a single cleavage front. Shortened flakes and points were removed from them. There are no geometrically shaped blunt-edged tools or bifacial spiky points with a base prepared for mounting in the MSA III industry. The tool kit is dominated by scrapers of various modifications and notched products. The pinnacles were formed on Levallois convergent cleavages mainly by single-row retouching on the dorsal side.

The origins of the final stage of the Middle Stone Age cannot yet be established. Most researchers do not see any continuity between the Howison's Port and MSA III industries. The conclusion made by E. Thackeray is significant: "Even if future technology-based approaches to studying MSA artifacts show that South African MSA sequences will be more variable and variable than we imagine today, the contrast between Middle and Late Stone Age artifacts will still indicate a lack of continuity in archaeological materials" [Thackeray A. J., 2000, p .166].

In the upper horizons of MSA III ca.40 KA BP, laurel-leaved pinnacles with a base designed for attachment, symbolism elements, bone products and other artifacts of the Upper Paleolithic appearance appear. During the transition period from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic, there is a kind of revival of some of the technical and typological innovations that existed in the Hovison's Port industry, but the reasons for this process cannot be considered established to date.

Paleolithic sites in southern Africa, dating from 40-20 thousand years AGO, are not numerous, and the archaeological material from them is not very expressive for describing the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic. The Upper Paleolithic horizons of the Apollo 11, Rose Cottage, Umhlatuzana, White Paintings, Border, and other localities are dominated by Levalloisian and radial systems of primary cleavage, points and pinnacles, flakes and lamellar chips with retouched areas, scrapers, and other products typical of the Middle Paleolithic. Along with typologically Middle Paleolithic artifacts, there are scrapers, chisel-shaped products, tools with a cast for fastening, incisors, and retouched plates. At the White Painting site, approximately 10 bone items were found, including spearheads and jagged harpoons. In the overlying pack of loose sediments, beads and blanks of beads from the shell of ostrich eggs are found. They are also found in Border Cave, as are the polished bone tips.

The complex without Middle Paleolithic elements in the primary cleavage, with a predominance of Upper Paleolithic tool types, belongs to the Robberg industry, which dates back to a time later than 20 thousand years ago.

Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in North and East Africa

In northern Africa, the Aterian industry became widespread in the middle of the Upper Pleistocene. Its source is the North African Mousterian (Hahn, 1984; Straus, 2001). The ater industry is distributed in North Africa, partly in Arabia, and possibly in southern Europe.

At the Ain Meterchem site in Tunis, the primary cleavage is dominated by disc-shaped nuclei. The share of Levallois nuclei is insignificant,

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The Levallois cusps are isolated (Grigoriev, 1977). Petiole tools are most typical for this industry. The petiole highlighted by a sharp retouch is present not only in the spikelets, but also in the scrapers and some other products (Fig. 15). Scrapers at this location are of various modifications: longitudinal, transverse, double and triple, convergent. In a small amount, there are plates with a blunted back, incisors, punctures, and notched products.

The location at El Aliya Grotto in Morocco was studied for many years in the pre war and post war period (1936 - 1940; 1945 - 1947, 2000 scientific expeditions from different countries( Bouzouggar et al., 2001; Bouzouggar, Kozlowski, Otte, 2002). Several systems were used in the primary splitting. There are single-site nuclei with a single front for removing blanks. The impact pad was prepared with a single chip (Fig. 16, 10). Discoid and Levallois nuclei are represented in all crop-bearing horizons (Fig. 16, 4; 17, 15). There are two-site nuclei for cleaving plates. The specific features of the pads and impact bumps indicate that all operating chains, except for the non-Valloise ones presented in the materials from layer 9, used soft bumpers (Bouzouggar, Kozlowski, Otte, 2002, p. 236).

At the El Aliya locality, bifacially treated pinnacles were found in all horizons (see Fig. 16, 3; 17, 2, 3). Leaf-shaped points were processed alternately from both edges. In cross-section, most of them are biconvex. Leaf-shaped points were re-formed by secondary retouching as they were used, as a rule, with deeper and irregular shots, and their shape changed towards an oval-asymmetric one. Registration points-

15. Aterian industry from Pochva (1-7) and Juf (8-13) points of the Ain Meterham monument (according to Grigoriev, 1977).

1 - a plate with a blunted edge; 2 - a scraper with a petiole; 3-a toothed tool; 4, 5-double scrapers; 6, 7-sharp points; 8, 12-points with a petiole; 9-11-scrapers; 13-a scraper with a petiole.

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16. Stone industry from layers 7 (1-4) and 9 (5-10) in the El Aliya grotto (according to [Bouzouggar, Kozlowski, Otte, 2002]). 1, 2, 8, 9 - scrapers; 3-point with petiole; 4, 10-nuclei; 5 - fragment of a single-sided processed tip; 6, 7-knives.

17. Stone industry from layer 6 in the El Aliya grotto (according to Bouzouggar, Kozlowski, and Otte, 2002).

1, 5, 7 - 9, 11 - 14 - scrapers; 2-leaf-shaped point; 3-point; 4, 6-beak-shaped tools; 10 - mousterian point; 15-nucleus.

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They were also observed on one dorsal side, with minor adjustments on the ventral side at the tip and tip. The peculiarity of this location is a small number of products with a petiole. The tool kit is dominated by scrapers of various modifications, there are mousterian points, scrapers, incisors, punctures, notched products, retouched plates and flakes (see Figs. 16, 17).

The whole ater is most characterized by the Levallois split. Moreover, all its main strategies are presented: obtaining points, flakes and plates. The diagnostic element of the industry is products with a petiole. These are primarily tips with a well-designed retouched tip and petiole. Retouching can be single-row or double-row. The petiole was formed from scrapers, scrapers, punctures, incisors. This indicates the widespread use of composite tools for performing various functions and the availability of reliable attachment techniques. At the Aterian localities, the most numerous scrapers of various modifications, a large number of serrated and notched products, and typical knives with a butt are found. At the late stage of this culture, the tips were widely distributed: with a rounded and pointed petiole, with a triangular and asymmetric base, bifacially processed leaf-shaped ones. The number of Upper Paleolithic tools (scrapers, chisels, blunt-edged plates, etc.) is small compared to the Middle Paleolithic ones. Fragments of bone tools made by abrasive planing were found in the Aterian layers in the El Mnasra cave in Morocco, a bone pendant was found in the Zuhra grotto also in Morocco, and a perforated shell was found at the Oued Djebanna site in Algeria (Vishnyatsky, 2008, pp. 88-89).

A difficult problem is the dating of Ater. The most typical and numerous Aterian localities date from 40-20 Ka BP (Debenath, 2000; Bouzouggar, Kozlowski, and Otte, 2002). There is a lot of evidence that this industry appeared earlier. In northeastern Africa (Cyrenaica) and Egypt, the Ater is dated to between 44,700 and 43,300 BP (Van Peer and Vermeersch, 2000). Some Aterian localities have dates from 80 to 60 Ka BP (Vishnyatsky, 2008).

According to all the main technical and typological indicators, the Aterian industry belongs to the Middle Paleolithic. Despite the long existence and wide territorial distribution, the Upper Paleolithic types of tools, even in late localities, are ca. 30 thousand years did not play a significant role.

Not only can the origins of the Ateran industry be traced back to the North African Mousterian, but there is also an anthropological continuity between the Aterian culture and the Mousterian people. Skeletal remains found in the Middle Paleolithic strata of the Jebel Irhud and Haua Ftea localities and in the Atera horizons at the Dar es Soltan, El Aliya, Zuhra, and Temara localities belong to hominids that approach modern humans in a number of important features. Some of their Neanderthaloid traits may be a consequence of contacts between different populations of the Circum-Mediterranean region [Ibid., p. 90].

In North Africa, the earliest Upper Paleolithic sites were found in northeastern Libya, Cyrenaica, and the Haua Ftea and Hagfet-ed-Dabba caves (McBurney, 1967; Grigoriev, 1977). The main excavations were carried out in the 1950s. The most complete dynamics of the Middle Paleolithic and early Upper Paleolithic are represented in the Haua Ftea cave. The thickness of loose sediments in the cave reaches 14 m. h. McBurney identified three main technical and typological divisions: Preorignac, Levallois-Moutier, and Upper Paleolithic (McBurney, 1967). The earliest, according to his definition, preorignac is enclosed in a thickness of loose sediments ca. 50 cm. In the stone inventory, according to C. McBurney, there are prismatic nuclei. They are flat, with one front of removal, one - and two-platform. The tool kit (approx. 80 copies) contains bifacially processed and chopper-shaped products, incisors, scrapers, scrapers, a fragment of a leaf-shaped tip, punctures, etc. G. P. Grigoriev [1977] rightly questioned many typological definitions of Ch. McBurney. Not all of his conclusions can be agreed with, but he is right in the main thing-the industry of the lower technical and typological division in the Haua Ftea cave cannot be attributed to the Middle Eastern Aurignac in all major indicators. It probably belongs to the early Middle Paleolithic of North Africa, but due to the small number of materials, it is impossible to draw definitive conclusions.

The so-called preorignac is overlain by a loose thickness of approx. 4 m, containing, according to the definition of C. McBurney, the Levallois-Mousterian industry. In this thickness, the researcher identified 10 culture-containing horizons, which he divided into several smaller technical and typological groups: hybrid Mousterian - layer XXXIV; typical Levallois-Mousterian - layers XXXIII, XXXII; Aterian culture - XXXI, XXX; later Mousterian - XXIX-XXVII; levallois-Mousterian-XXVI, XXVII In reality. represented in all these horizons by not so numerous artifacts that such a fractional division can be made, it does not go beyond the usual moutier.

For the discussed problem of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic, the XXV and overlying cultures containing

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horizons. C. McBurney (and many researchers agree with him) believes that since the middle of the XXV layer, the Upper Paleolithic industry appears, which is not connected with its origin not only with the underlying Mousterian horizons, but in general with the Middle Paleolithic of Africa. This industry is now referred to as the Dabban culture, named for its location in the Hagfet-ed-Dabba cave.

Tsch. McBurney identified seven Upper Paleolithic cultural horizons in the cave. Layers 4 - 6 are the most saturated with finds. Loose deposits of the 6th layer have a dark color due to the large number of carbonaceous primazki from bonfires. Layer 5, which also contains many ashy inclusions, contained numerous animal bones. In the 4th layer, which has a reddish color, no bonfires were found, but a large number of stone tools were found.

Primary cleavage is associated with one-and two-site nuclei, which are part of the cell structure. McBurney defines them as prismatic. For the Dabban culture, the diagnostic types are plates with a blunted edge and plates with a transverse chamfer, which are represented in large numbers in the materials of the Haua Ftea and Hagfet-ed-Dabba monuments (Fig. 18). Plates with a blunted edge were formed on blanks of various shapes and sizes. They are usually elongated, some more than 10 cm in length. There are segmental-shaped plates, but unlike geometric products, they have a steep, almost vertical retouching of one edge. There are points with a blunted edge. Peculiar tools - plates with a transverse incisor chip (lames à chanfrein) or, as they are more often called, tools on plates with a transverse chamfer (pièces à chanfrein). One or two of their edges were drawn up by retouching, and then a transverse chip was made at one end in the form of a chisel. The incisor chip formed an acute angle with the retouched edge. Such tools are quite rare in the Paleolithic. They are known in Siberia as diagonal incisors and in Japan, where they are called "araya incisors". The appearance of similar types of products in different territories is another example of convergence. In the dabban industry, other types of incisors are also known: angular, median. There are few scrapers, especially in early dabban. There are points with a convex blunted edge.

Tsch. McBurney considered the Dabban to be one of the oldest Upper Paleolithic cultures in the world. The XX layer in the Haua Ftea cave is dated to 31,150 ± 40 years BC, and the XXVIII-41 thousand years BC. Based on this, C. McBurney attributed the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic to 40-38 thousand years BC.

A very important question about the origin of the Dabban culture. Most researchers exclude its continuity with the local Mousterian: the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic in Cyrenaica occurred suddenly and under the influence of migration processes. Currently, the most well-founded hypothesis is about the origins of the culture in the Middle Eastern Emiran, whose localities are distributed along the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean and Red Seas.

The Middle Paleolithic industries of northeastern Africa, Nubia, and the Lower Nile Valley are extremely mosaic-like. This can be explained by objective and subjective reasons. The subjective factor is that the study of the Paleolithic was carried out

18. Stone inventory of the Dabban culture from the Haua Ftea (1-10) and Hagfet - ed-Dabba (11-17) sites (according to (McBumey, 1967)).

1, 2, 5, 9, 11, 12, 14 - blunted edge plates; 3, 4, 10, 13, 16 - incisors; 6-8, 15, 17-scrapers.

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representatives of different schools, and this led to excessive fragmentation, besides, the allocation of new cultures or industries was not always justified. One of the objective factors is the geographical location of the region - at the junction with Eurasia. Due to the proximity of ecological conditions, animals often migrated from north to south, from west to east, and in the opposite direction, followed by humans. These processes could be especially intense during climate changes that led to changes in the environment. Archaeologists often use the concepts of "stadial", "interstadial", "mega-interstadial", etc. In their constructions concerning climate fluctuations. For a specific group of people living in real time, it is not so much climate fluctuations calculated in periods of tens of thousands of years, when there was a gradual radical restructuring of the natural environment, that are important, but rather changes within the boundaries of the natural environment. tens and hundreds of years, or even over the life of a single generation.

For the last 2 thousand years, the dendrochronological method revealed regional supercentenarian (160-170 years) and intra - centennial periods.(45 - 50, 30 - 33, 22 and 11 years) cycles (Vaganov et al., 2008). Similar climatic fluctuations occurred not only in the Holocene, but also in the Pleistocene. Short-term climate changes could not but lead to changes in the ecosystem. The heat and moisture supply of vegetation changed, and landscapes, especially steppe ones, also changed. Droughts led to mass migrations of ungulates to more favorable areas, and people also migrated after the animals. In this sense, the corridor connecting Africa and Eurasia played a major role. It is no coincidence that North-east Africa and the Middle East have a mosaic industry.

In the north-east of Africa, several large areas can be distinguished, where a peculiar development of industry in the middle and second half of the Pleistocene can be traced. One of them is the Kharga oasis in the Libyan Desert west of the Nile River (Caton-Thompson, 1952; Grigoriev, 1977). Here, the Acheulean and Levallois industries developed in the Middle Pleistocene and the first half of the Upper Pleistocene, and the Kharga and Aterian industries developed in the middle and second half of the Upper Pleistocene.

The Harga industry has its origins in the Levallois line of development. Primary cleavage is characterized by small Levallois nuclei for removing shortened flakes and, more rarely, plates. The tool set is dominated by toothed-notched products designed on shortened and truncated flakes, beak-shaped, toothed tools, scrapers, scrapers of high shape and with a "snout", plates with steep retouching, etc.

The kharga industry is replaced by the Aterian one. It is also characterized by the Levallois primary cleavage. Among the tools are retouched Levallois points, pinnacles, leaf-shaped points, scrapers, scrapers and Aterian points with a petiole. The Aterian culture-bearing layers belong to the end of the Late Pleistocene.

On the territory of ancient Nubia, research in the 60-70s of the XX century was conducted in connection with the construction of the Aswan dam by several international expeditions. The Middle Stone Age here is divided by the Soletsky River into the Nubian moustache A and B, and the jagged moustache (see Grigoriev, 1977). This division should be considered conditional, since most of the Middle Paleolithic localities have a surface cultural layer. Nubian moustache A differs from Type B in the absence of chops. The primary cleavage is Levalloisian, with a large number of notched products, Upper Paleolithic tools, scrapers and incisors, small and featureless. There are no bone tools. The upper chronological boundary of the Nubian mustier A and B is between 17 and 15 KA BP [Ibid., p. 143].

The next stage of the Paleolithic is the Khormusian culture, which preserves the Levallois split, but has much more Upper Paleolithic types of stone products, there are few bone tools and grinding machines for grinding hematite. This culture is radiocarbon dated to 20-14 Ka BP [Ibid., p. 148].

In the lower Nile valley, the Nazlet Khater-4 site was studied, located in a silicate limestone mine (Vermeersch et al., 1984). The stone products found here can be attributed to the plate industry. Among the tools, a special place is occupied by notched products, scrapers and incisors. Nine radiocarbon dates from 35 to 31 thousand years BC were obtained. At a short distance from this location, a burial of a modern anatomical type was found. There are reports of another burial site. A radiocarbon date of about 37 thousand years AGO was obtained from one of the burials [Vishnyatsky, 2008, p. 93]. At the Sodmain site in the hills on the Red Sea coast of Egypt, a culture-containing horizon with Emyrean-type tools and an underlying layer with Middle Paleolithic industry were found under two Upper Paleolithic layers, and two radiocarbon dates were obtained for it-30 and more than 30 thousand years ago.

One of the transit territories through which migration to Eurasia could occur is East Africa. Here, the transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic is most fully represented in the multi-layered Encapune Iya Muto localities in Kenya and Mumba localities in Tanzania. Encapune Oya Muto Grotto

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located to the west of the lake. Naivasha in the Kenyan part of the East African Rift Valley at an altitude of 2,400 m above sea level. Excavations were carried out in 1982 and 1987 on a small area (Ambrose, 1998). The thickness of loose sediments was 5 - 6 m.

Culture-bearing horizons from the Iron Age to the end of the Middle Stone Age are revealed (Fig. Iron Age layer - IA, Neolithic-from ELM to RBL3. The first Paleolithic layer of DBL1 was a dark brown sandy loam that overlapped the third volcanic ash horizon. The layer contains 69,000 stone artifacts and highly fragmented animal bones. The Upper Paleolithic stone industry was called sakutiek. In the primary cleavage, discoid nuclei are still preserved. Most of the tools are made from flakes. The tool kit includes scrapers, mostly small in size, nail-shaped, chisel-shaped products, a few knives, among which there are bifacially designed, microlitic, including geometric shapes with a blunted edge (Fig. 20, 7-21). Particularly noteworthy finds are processed fragments of ostrich eggshells (Figs. 20, 1-6). 13 complete necklaces, 12 perforated blanks, and 595 shell fragments were found. On charcoal from the DBL1 layer.2 after three years of storage, a date of 16,300 ± 1,000 years BC was obtained from another coal sample submitted for analysis two months after the excavation - 29,300 ± 750 and 35,800 ± 550 years BC from the sample from the outer surface of an ostrich egg shell from the DBL1.3 horizon (sole of the earth). The DBL1 layer has a date of 37,000 ± 1,100, with an internal date of 39,900 ± 1,600 years B.C. The DBL1 layer indicates the intensive use of the grotto by people at this time and the manufacture of beads from ostrich eggshells directly in the habitat.

The lower layers are gray gravel GG1 and 2, separated by layers of orange and clay.-

19. Stratigraphic section of the southern Encapune Yia Muto locality, excavated in 1982 (according to Ambrose, 1998).

1-silt; 2-sandy silt; 3-silty sand; 5-layered silt-sand; 6-light brown loam; 7 - gray-brown; 8-dark gray; 9 - black ash; 10-light brown sandy; 11 - brown loose loam; 12 - white ash; 13 - orange; 14-black; 15 - gray; 16 - brown ash; 1 7-hardened silt; 18-red-brown loam; 19-red-brown sandy loam; 20-red-brown loam with coarse-grained sand; 21-dark brown silty sand; 22 - dark brown sandy silt; 23-dark brown ash; 24-gray-brown; 25 - brown-gray ash; 26-gray gravel; 27-orange sandy gravel; 28-molehill; 29-charcoal; 30-grass; 31-droppings; 32-volcanic ash; 33 - stone block; 34-dark brown loam.

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20. Ostrich eggshell beads (1-6) and obsidian artefacts (7-21) from the Sakuchika industry from the DBL1 layer in the Encapune Ya Muto Grotto (from Ambrose, 1998).

1-4 - whole beads; 5, 6-beads broken during manufacture; 7-10-geometric microlytic flakes and plates; 11, 12-segments; 13-double-sided nucleus; 14-18-nail-shaped scrapers; 19-21-partially bifacial and bifacial knives.

ka with gravel OL1. A small number of artefacts and animal bones dating back to the early Upper Paleolithic were found in this pack of loose sediments. The most expressive products are made of obsidian. This stage is characterized by large lamellar segmental tools with a blunted arc-shaped edge. There are traces of red ochre on them. It is assumed that these guns had a handle attached parallel to the long axis [Ibid., p. 383]. There are also microliths of geometric shape, end and side scrapers, scrapers with a jagged edge, incisors, including double ones, chisel-shaped products are rarely found (Fig. 21). S. Ambrose does not refer this Nasampolai industry to the transition stage from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic, because it is completely different from the Howison's Port industry, and he considers the entire thickness of loose sediments to be older than 40 thousand years ago.

Below is sandy loam from dark red to dark brown (RBL4). A small number of stone tools were found in it. Primary splitting is characterized by a radial technique. The tool kit is dominated by segmental products with an arc-shaped rim, geometric microliths, chisels, scrapers, scrapers, chisel-shaped products (Fig. 22). Among the processed tools are two flakes with traces of ochre. This industry endings S. Ambrose refers to the Middle Stone Age. Radiocarbon dates for the RBL4 layer > 26 Ka B.C., 29,280 ± 540, and 41,400 ± 700 B.C. Based on obsidian hydration and average sedimentation calculations, Ambrose places the beginning of the transition to the Upper Paleolithic at 50 Ka B.C. It is difficult to agree with this conclusion. In the specific conditions of sedimentation in the Yia Muto Encapun grotto, when alluvial and Aeolian processes played a major role in the formation of the loose sediment thickness, the average calculation is not applicable. This method can be used in extremely rare cases, when there is complete confidence in the absence of deflation of the ancient surface and interruptions in sedimentation. But for all the problematic chronological definitions, the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic here probably refers to the time of ca. 40 thousand years AGO, and maybe a little earlier. The conclusion that the transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic occurred much earlier than 46 thousand years BC requires additional evidence [Ibid., p. 388].

The Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic industry was recorded in the middle and upper parts of Layer V in the Moomba Grotto in northern Tanzania (Mehlman, 1991). Although it differs from the industry on the location of Encapune Yia Muto, but for both the character-

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21. Stone artefacts of the Nasampolai industry from the GG horizon of the Encapune Ya Muto locality (from Ambrose, 1998).

1-9 - rounded knives and microliths (dots in images 2, 3, 6 and 9 indicate the location of traces of red ochre); 10-end and toothed scrapers; 11, 12-double incisors.

22. Stone artefacts and endings from the RBL4 horizon in the Yia Muto Encapune Grotto (from Ambrose, 1998).

1-3-products in the shape of a crescent with a rim; 4-a triangular tip with alternative lateral retouching and incisive chipping (or scrapping) on the distal edge; 5 - a beveled end scraper; 6 - a tool with a cast; 7, 8-flakes with traces of red ochre on the site and dorsal (7), dorsal and ventral (8); 9 - a split with a faceted pad removed from the radial nucleus.

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Tools of geometric shapes with a blunted edge are considered (Ambrose, 1998). The primary cleavage in the Moomba grotto was Levalloisian, mainly for the removal of flakes. Among the tools, the most typical are products of geometric shapes and pointed points. The former are mainly represented by segments and trapezoids. Some are of considerable size, while others are microlytic. The segments had a vertical retouching of an arc - shaped edge, while the trapezoids had side edges. The spikelets are small in size and of two types: laurel-leaved with bifacial surface treatment on both sides and slightly elongated, decorated with retouching only at the edges. Among other tools, there are notched products, scrapers, including nail-shaped ones, incisors, knives with bifacial processing, etc. Of particular interest are beads made from ostrich eggshells.

The underlying layer VI contained the Middle Paleolithic industry. There are also Levallois cleavage cleavages, incisors, scrapers, single-sided and bifacial pegs.

Researchers differ in their assessment of the technical and typological characteristics of the industry from layers V and VI. Some refer to the Middle Stone Age (MSA) only as Layer VI (Mehlman, 1991), while others refer to both layers (McBrearty and Brooks, 2000).

The issue of dating the culture-bearing horizons of the Moomba locality cannot be considered fully resolved. Analysis of snail bones and shells yielded results ranging from 29,570 ± 1,400 to > 37 thousand years B.C. The uranotorium method obtained a date of 65.6-46.6 thousand years BP (Mehlman, 1991). The ostrich egg shell was dated to 52 Ka BP by amino acid racemization (D'Errico et al., 2005). The industry from a stratigraphic horizon comparable to the Howison's Port stage (layer VI?) is attributed to 65 Ka BP (Deacon, 2000). According to radiocarbon dating of snail shells, the boundary between layers IV and V is 36,900 years BC (Mehlman, 1991). For layer III containing the Nasser industry with blunted edge microliths and beads, dates are obtained in the interval 33 200 - 27 000 Brooks and Robertshaw, 1990; Conard, 2005. With such a large difference in estimates of the age of Layer V, it is impossible to unambiguously answer the question of the time of the beginning of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic in East Africa. For a more reasoned answer to this question, new research is required. It should be added that at the Nasser site, 70 km from the Moomba grotto, layer 6 with the Nasser industry was dated by different methods (230th / U-date, three by 14 C and one by amino acid racemization) within 26 000 - 14 800 years BC [Mehlman, 1991]. Based on all available dates, the transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic in East Africa can be dated from the materials of the multi-layered sites of Mumba and Encapune Oya Muto to no later than 40 thousand years ago (Ambrose, 1998).

Conclusion

Summing up a brief review of the Paleolithic rocks of North, East, and South Africa in the range of 80-30 Ka BP, it should be noted first of all that they are highly variable. The general trend is to preserve the Middle Paleolithic strategy of core splitting, mainly the Levallois and radial systems, which were used at least up to 20 thousand years AGO, and in some regions up to the end of the Pleistocene. This is one of the main distinguishing features of the transition period and the Upper Paleolithic of Africa. In the north and east of the African continent, the diagnostic elements in the tool kit of Early Upper Paleolithic sites are Aterian arrowheads and tools of geometric shapes with a blunted edge. In Eurasia, Aterian tips with petioles are found on sites of the developed Upper Paleolithic only in Arabia. Tools of geometric shapes with blunted edges appear in Eurasia only at the end of the Paleolithic-Mesolithic, and their appearance is the result of convergent development of industry in the Mediterranean. A similar process is observed in the East of Asia - in Korea and Japan (Derevyanko, 1983, 1984). Technologically, they are in no way connected to an industry like Howison's Port of Africa. In the Paleolithic period of the Middle East, there are no significant influences from African countries. Moreover, the Middle Eastern Emiran influenced the formation of the Early Upper Paleolithic culture in northeastern Africa and especially in Cyrenaica.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 26.10.10.

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