Moscow, Nauka, 1983, 183 p. (in Russian)

One of the greatest achievements of Soviet archeology in the 60s is the results of the Nubian archaeological expedition headed by Academician B. B. Piotrovsky. The expedition operated for two seasons: from December 1, 1961 to March 31, 1962 and from December 14, 1962 to April 26, 1963. In a short time - a total of 8 months - a huge amount of work was done: the vast territory of the Nile River Valley, about 30 km long, from Herf Husayn to Maharraki, as well as Wadi Allaki, a route of about 300 km long, along which caravans went to the gold mines of the Nubian desert in ancient times and in the Middle Ages, was surveyed.

The Nubian expedition investigated mainly two types of sources: archaeological (ancient sites of the Mousterian period, later settlements and burial grounds, as well as petroglyphs) and paleographic (hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions). The most numerous were archaeological sites dating back to different eras, discovered and explored by Soviet archaeologists. On both banks of the Nile, in the area of the villages of Dhaka and West Koshtamna, the expedition discovered more than ten localities of the Mousterian period, materials about which were subsequently prepared for publication by V. P. Lyubin1 . These findings made it possible for the first time to characterize the moutier of the Levallois facies in the middle part of Egyptian Nubia.

In addition to the early complexes, monuments of the Late Paleolithic - Mesolithic period, the so-called Sebil culture, a settlement dating back to the First Dynasty, and the Remeni burial grounds of the Ancient and Middle Tsards2 were found and studied . Of particular interest to characterize the art and worldview of the ancient Nubian Desert population,

1 Lubin V. P. Lower Paleolithic in the Dhaka-Koshtamna region. In: Drevnyaya Nubiya [Ancient Nubia], Moscow, 1964.

2 See also: Vinogradov A.V. Sebil culture in the Dhaka region. Burial grounds of the Middle Kingdom era in the area of villages. Kurt; his own. Excavations of burial grounds in the area of villages. Zapadnaya Koshtamna; Merpert N. Ya., Bolshakov O. G. Early dynastic settlement of Khor-Daud.

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Since the pre-dynastic period, petroglyphs depicting people, animals, and anthropomorphic figures have been discovered and studied. The most important sources are the ancient Egyptian inscriptions on the rocks discovered by the expedition participants.

A particularly large amount of work on summarizing the materials of the Nubian expedition was carried out by Academician B. B. Piotrovsky 3 . The result of the analysis of the most important archaeological and written sources of the Wadi Allaki area is a beautifully published monograph, which consists of a preface, historical reference, analysis of written sources and images on rocks. The book is provided with rich illustrative material. Like the previous works of B. B. Piotrovsky, it continues the best traditions of Russian Egyptology. With great completeness and thoroughness, based on his own field materials and the work of his predecessors, the author piecemeal reconstructs impressive pages of the ancient history of Northern Nubia.

The history of Northern Nubia in Russian and Soviet literature prior to the works of B. B. Piotrovsky is the least illuminated in comparison with the history of other outlying regions that were part of the ancient Egyptian state. This also applies to our knowledge of the pre-dynastic period. Based on the writings of F. Using his own original material, B. B. Piotrovsky gave an exhaustive picture of the formation and development of the two main pre-dynastic cultures: the Amrat and Gerzei, in a lapidary form, by J. de Morgan, G. Reizner, S. Feurs, and other Western researchers. He examined tools, ceramics, features of ornamental motifs on vessels, and art objects. At that time, in the Nile Valley, agriculture is being formed in low-lying areas and cattle breeding on the plateau in savanna vegetation.

With the formation of the state in Upper Egypt at the turn of the IV-III millennium BC, a new period of history begins, when Northern Nubia became part of Ancient Egypt. Archaeologists have investigated burial grounds and a number of settlements dating back to the early Dynastic period. At its earliest stage, material culture - particularly ceramics-combines many elements of old and new traditions in a striking way. The combination of old and new elements was traced by the expedition members during the excavations of an early dynastic settlement in the Khor-Dauda area. The entire complex of ceramics found in its pits definitely dates back to the beginning of the early dynastic period, to the very end of the IV millennium or to the turn of the IV-III millennium BC. Along with pre-dynastic forms, specifically Nubian, there are many vessels similar to those found in Abydos in tombs and sanctuaries of the first two dynasties. The settlement itself consisted of light structures covered with shields woven from grass or reeds, which belonged to pastoralists.

Cattle breeding played an extremely important role in the process of class formation. Almost all ancient Egyptian terms that reflect the property and class differentiation of the population are associated with cattle breeding. This is very clearly illustrated by the pictographic signs of the Egyptian script. Thus, the terms "prince" and" tsar "are conveyed by images of a shepherd's crook," nobility"," nobility"," dignity "- an image of a goat with the seal of ownership on its neck, the term "royal dignity" is also written with the sign of a goat and two crowns. at various stages of the development of the productive forces, private ownership of cattle produced a more stable surplus product than primitive agriculture. The state was formed with the subsequent rise of agriculture, and then farmers become the dominant class in Egypt, although social terms retain remnants of the past in the hieroglyphics" (p.13).

The Nubian expedition also investigated burials dating back to the third Dynasty of Egypt, when the culture of the Northern half of the world was still preserved.

3 Piotrovsky B. B. Archaeological expedition to Nubia. - Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1962, No. 2; it. Nubian archaeological expedition. - Ibid., 1964, No. 11; it is the same. Pages of the ancient history of Northern Nubia. In: Ancient Nubia; his own. Ancient Egyptian inscriptions in the area of villages. Dhaka and Wadi Allaki. "Same place; same place. Two Egyptian inscriptions of the VI dynasty in Wadi Allaki (Nubia). - Vestnik drevnoi istorii, 1966, no. 1; his. Wadi Allaki - der Weg der Alten zu den Goldminen Nubies. - Proceedings of the 26 International Congress of Orientalists. New Delhi 1964. New Delhi, Vol. II, 1968, pp 12 - 16.

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Nubia is beginning to separate, and the physical type of its population shows clear signs of negroidism, which was the result of the invasion of nomadic tribes from the south. And in political terms, Nubia, from which wood was brought to Egypt to build boats, cattle were stolen, ivory and gold were taken away, and it was striving for independence. The author draws attention to the fact that the power of the Egyptians was based only on military force, and it is not by chance that at the end of the IV Dynasty relations between Nubia and Egypt ceased, and the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom had to reconquer Nubia (pp. 8-10). A similar process occurred during the temporary collapse of the Egyptian state in the period between the Middle and New Kingdoms, when Nubia became independent again, and the Hyksos rulers who conquered Egypt recognized Nubia (Kush) as an independent country and negotiated with it. During the New Kingdom, Nubia is once again part of the Egyptian state.

Since the excavation of the tomb of Tutankhamun, scientists from many countries have repeatedly returned to the analysis of the items found in it. B. B. Piotrovsky turned to the finds from this treasury in order to highlight all the Nubian elements among them, making a number of interesting conclusions about the culture in general, as well as about the art of Nubian artisans and the nature of political relations between Nubia and Egypt (p. 15-17).

Based on archaeological and written sources, the author reveals the material, spiritual culture and political history of Northern Nubia during the New Kingdom period, although concisely, but vividly and convincingly. An important source about the life and culture of the ancient population of the Nubian Desert are petroglyphs that were studied by the expedition to Wadi Allaki everywhere: at the sites of Egyptian caravans in caves, grottoes and on individual stones. The rock paintings published by Academician B. B. Piotrovsky in the monograph are the most valuable source. Petroglyphs were found not only in Wadi Allaki, but also in other areas of the expedition. So, on the left bank of the Nile, between Herf Husein and West Koshtamna, on a coastal rock, images of three boats, people and animals that belong to the early dynastic period were found. The image of one boat with a widening bow and two buildings coincides with the image of boats from the painting of one of the tombs of the beginning of the Egyptian state, discovered in Hierakonpol.

The monograph, which is relatively small in volume, provides a wealth of information for specialists in various areas of historical science. Thus, before the Nubian expedition, only 34 ancient Egyptian inscriptions were known from this area, and Soviet archaeologists found about 200 hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions, about 70 groups and individual images, as well as three medieval Arabic inscriptions. This in itself is a world-class discovery. The monograph and other works of B. B. Piotrovsky on the results of the Nubian expedition - an undoubted contribution to historical science

Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. P. Derevyanko

***

B. B. Piotrovsky's book on the rock inscriptions of Wadi Allaki is a kind of summary of his many years of Egyptological research. Prior to this, there was only one small article on the ancient Egyptian epigraphy of Wadi Allaki .

The inscriptions of Wadi Allaki, which were only the names and titles of the participants of the expeditions for building stone and gold, at first glance, did not contain new information and were not full of royal names, so for a long time they seemed unremarkable. However, the inscriptions and images of Wadi Allaki - from the banks of the Nile to Wadi Kulayb - brought together and studied by B. B. Piotrovsky for the first time turned out to be an important source that provides new knowledge about the routes of Egyptian caravans in the Nubian desert and about the complex organization of ancient expeditions, their nature and composition, as well as about the religion included in the sphere of influence of Egyptian culture. Buck, where the path to the famous gold mines lay, is located-

1 Gerny J. Graffiti at the Wadi EI-Allaqi. - Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Lnd., 1947, Vol. 33.

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between the Nile and the Red Sea. When compared with previously known texts from other areas of Nubia and Egypt, these inscriptions revealed new facets of the history of political and cultural contacts of the Egyptians with neighboring southern tribes, including the inhabitants of the Nubian country of Ibhat, which belonged to the territory of Wadi Allaki.

Most of the ancient Egyptian rock inscriptions discovered by the Nubian expedition, copies, transcription and paleography of which are perfectly reproduced in the book, belong to the XVIII and especially to the XIX - early XX dynasties. But the real sensation was the discovery, one and a half kilometers from Umm Ashira, on the southern side of the Wadi, of the names of two famous dignitaries of the VI dynasty - "caravan chiefs" Hunes and Uni. As is known from the Abydos text, now preserved in the Cairo Museum of Antiquities, Uni, who served three sovereigns, was sent, by royal order, to the country of Ibhat to deliver from there the sarcophagus and the stone for the pyramid of Merenra. Uni's "autograph" - two lines of an inconspicuous inscription, which by a lucky chance survived in the area of an ancient quarry-visibly confirms the information of his autobiographical text from Abydos and convincingly supports the assumption of B. B. Piotrovsky that in the era of the Ancient Kingdom, stone was mainly delivered from Nubia to Egypt (p.32).

The inscriptions of Hunes and Uni show that even in ancient times the Egyptians were much more adventurous in finding ways to unknown lands than is usually assumed, and their caravans could have moved significantly away from the banks of the Nile and penetrated far to the south. Among the inscriptions of the VI dynasty period, the name of another "caravan chief" - Tua-attracts attention. This dignitary was obviously a very experienced and courageous expedition leader. Only a person of such qualities could be entrusted with their organization in extremely difficult conditions. And it is no coincidence that the name Tua was also discovered in Wadi Hammamat, where he, like in Wadi Allaki, mined stone for the royal court.

From the text of a stele found in the last century in Semna, it was known about the conquest of the rebellious country of Ibhat under Amenhotep III by the" royal son of Kush " Merimes, one of the most famous Egyptian governors of Nubia. This important event, as suggested by B. B. Piotrovsky, was associated with the appearance of the Merimesa inscription on the rock of Umm Ashira (p. 31). Next to the magnificent titles and the image of the grandee himself, there is also an image of a prancing horse. It may have been used by Allaki Merimes on his way to the Wadi against the rebellious desert tribes at the head of an army recruited from local Egyptian fortresses. Merimes ' name is also preserved in inscriptions from other subordinate regions of Nubia.

According to academician B. B. Piotrovsky, based on the inscriptions of Wadi Allaki, during the XIX dynasty movement in the country of Ibhat was already safe and caravans did not need strong military protection (p.39, 41). A different situation seems to have developed in the area of Wadi Hammamat, where in the time of Ramesses IV, as is clear from the rock inscription preserved here, the expedition numbering more than 8 thousand people, which was headed by the high priest of Amun Ramessunakht, included 5 thousand soldiers and 50 majai (guards). Thus, the rock inscriptions of Wadi Allaki provided researchers with an interesting comparative material.

The study of the composition of the expeditions, the names of the participants of which have survived in the caravan sites, has given us a lot and can still give us a lot. The book's detailed index of titles and professions will undoubtedly be of great help in this regard. Judging by the proper names, an exhaustive summary of which is given in the book, we can only talk about the Egyptian composition of the expeditions. But the caravans were probably accompanied by nameless locals who played the role of guides, just as it was, for example, in Sinai, where the Egyptians willingly used the services of Asians as drivers of Egyptian caravans going to the mines.

It is noteworthy that in the inscriptions of Wadi Allaki, the names of scribes of different ranks are most often mentioned, sometimes repeating themselves: scribes of the nome, scribes of the gold account and scribes of the treasury, "scribe of the account of the temple of the country of Bak" (pp. 101-110). It is this, the most competent, part of the expeditions, related mainly to the account of the extracted gold, as well as to the lower-ranking priests who took part in it.

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their participation, sometimes as secular officials, has a special role in spreading Egyptian cultural influence in the Bac area.

The organization of expeditions required not only the inclusion of a large number of people in a wide variety of professions, but also the provision of food and water. Water extraction was particularly difficult in the desert. Therefore, Egyptian inscriptions describe the capture of wells from local residents or the construction of new wells as events of great significance. In this regard, the discovery of a fragment of the stone stele of Ramesses II by the Nubian expedition in the area of Umm Ashira, the site of the largest parking lot of ancient caravans, is particularly significant. In its five surviving lines, the name of the well is preserved, which was built here by order of the king and received the name "Ramesses Meri-Amon, valiant in life"in honor of him. This name, with the last word destroyed, was known from the stele of Ramesses II from the Kuban fortress at the mouth of the wadi. Thanks to the extremely successful discovery of the stele in Umm Ashir and its study, B. B. Piotrovsky determined the exact location of the well and restored its full name.

The difficulties and dangers of ancient expeditions should have seemed surmountable to the ancient Egyptians under the protection of their native gods. The epigraphic and pictorial material of Wadi Allaki, comprehensively presented in the book, allows us to identify essential features of the beliefs of the expedition participants and even to some extent supplement what was already known about the worship of Egyptian gods in Northern Nubia, whose worship penetrated here along with the colonists. Horus (Khor), "lord of the country of Bak" - the central deity of the Egyptianized pantheon of this region-most often appears in the inscriptions and images of Wadi Allaki. Merimes prays to him before a decisive battle with the rebellious inhabitants of the desert. This god occupies a place of honor in the stele of Ramesses II of Kuban. The falcon god depicted in the images on the rock of Umm Ashira seems to hover over the desert. The mountain of the country of Bak is the most important hypostasis of this god, who was worshipped in Northern Nubia, along with Mount Buhen and Mount Miam, and the inscriptions of Wadi Allaki are a vivid confirmation of this. The materials of the book once again testify to the special veneration of Amun, Thoth and Isis in Nubia, and to the importance that the cult of the desert deity, "the lord of foreign lands", and the ancient Egyptian god Mina received in the country of Bak.

A new body of inscriptions that was almost never studied before, an immaculately clear and deep method of analyzing them, and a special research style peculiar to B. B. Piotrovsky, thanks to which a monument or fact that has long been known in Egyptology suddenly reveals itself from a completely unexpected side-all this makes his book an indispensable work in the field of studying the history of ancient Egypt with Northern Nubia, it is all the more valuable since the inscriptions and drawings of Wadi Allaki as a result of the flooding of the Nile waters of those places where the Nubian expedition worked are no longer available for study.

O. I. Pavlova

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